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Chapter 11:
Parenting Roles and Child
Socialization
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Good Parenting

Varies according to context.
 Is often based on white, middle-class,
Western norms.
 Is shaped by family strategies for survival.
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Motherhood and Fatherhood

Parental Investment Theory-reproductive
strategies that best increase the likelihood
that genetic material will be passed on
through offspring varies according to sex.
 Ethological Perspective-women bond more
closely with children because they are the
early providers of satisfaction for infants’
basic physical needs.
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Critiques of these Theories

Men can perform expressive roles and
women instrumental ones.
 Animal behavior shows that males and
females use both strategies.
 Full-time care-giving fathers raise children
who have strong and healthy attachments to
both parents.
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Parent-Child Attachment

Secure-comfort with a mix of proximity and
distance, little exposure to risk.
 Insecure-resistant-parents distance themselves
from children, exposing child to risk.
 Insecure-avoidant-parents are overly close to their
children, and the child is angry when separation
occurs.
 Disorganized-do not desire closeness; are not
distressed by distance.
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Parenting Styles

Authoritative-high expectations, high
warmth.
 Authoritarian-high expectations, low
warmth.
 Permissive/Indulgent-low expectations,
high warmth.
 Indifferent/Uninvolved-low expectations,
low warmth.
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Corporal Punishment

Is the use of physical force to correct
behavior.

Must be viewed in a socio-cultural context,
including:
– Culturally prescribed meanings
– Social structural variations
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Theories of
Socialization Processes

Learning/Behaviorist

Psychoanalytic

Child Development

Symbolic Interaction
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Learning/Behaviorist
Frame of Reference

Assumes that the same principles of
learning apply to humans as to other
animals.

Both classical conditioning (Pavlov) and
operant conditioning (Skinner) explain
learning as a conditioned response to
external stimuli.
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Psychoanalytic Frame
of Reference

Stresses the importance of biological drives and
unconscious psychic processes to personality
formation.
 Freud Identified 5 Stages of Human
Development:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
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Child Development
Frames of Reference



Erik Erikson viewed
socialization as a lifelong
process.
He identified 8 stages of
development.
At each stage the
individual must resolve a
crisis brought on by
physiological changes and
a constantly changing
social situation.



Jean Piaget focused on the
importance of cognition.
He identified 4 stages of
development.
He argued that
development is an ability
to reason abstractly, think
logically, and organize
rules into complex
structures.
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Erikson’s Eight Stages
of Development








Infancy–trust versus mistrust
Early Childhood–autonomy versus shame and doubt
Young Childhood–initiative versus guilt
School Age–industry versus inferiority
Adolescence–identity versus role confusion
Young Adulthood–intimacy versus isolation
Adulthood and Middle Age–generativity versus stagnation
Old Age–integrity versus despair
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Piaget’s Four Stages of
Intellectual Development




Sensorimotor (birth to 18 months)–based on physical
understandings of self and world.
Preoperational (18 months to 7 years)–language
acquisition and treatment of objects as symbolic.
Concrete operational (7 to 12 years)–learns cause and
effect, can manipulate tools and classify objects,
understands permanence, considers others’ views.
Formal operational (12 years and up)–develops ability to
think abstractly, can develop alternative solutions to
problems.
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Symbolic Interaction
Frame of Reference

This sociological perspective focuses on:
– Symbols
– Language
– Internalized meanings

It sees socialization as a lifelong process,
developed through interaction.
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Symbolic Interaction

Stryker Identified Four Basic
Assumptions:
1. Humans must be studied on their own level.
2. The most fruitful approach to social behavior
is through analyzing society.
3. The human infant at birth is asocial.
4. A socialized human being is both an actor and
a reactor.
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Symbolic Interaction



Development of a social self occurs through
interaction with others.
Significant others and reference groups are those
that we psychologically identify with and seek
acceptance from.
Socialization stages and interaction processes
provide us with a sense of self, others, and social
relationships.
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Symbolic Interaction

Very early experiences provide infants with their
first sense of self, others, and social relationships.

For most infants, the mother is the first, primary,
and most significant other.

The infant internalizes a sense of self-worth and
self-image through repetitive interactions.
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Symbolic Interaction

Mead asserted that individuals develop a mental
construct, the generalized other, which allows
people to see themselves from the standpoints of
others.

His model includes three Stages of Observation:
1. Preparatory stage–Children imitate others;
2. Play stage–Children take roles of others; and
3. Game stage–Children participate in games
involving rules.
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Socialization in Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of active engagement in:
–
–
–
–
–
–

Sex role identification
Interaction with the opposite sex
Participation in new social activities
Acquisition of vocational skills
Increasing independence from parents
A new sense of self-reliance
For teens, school and peer groups are central
sources of reference, interaction, and identity.
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Gender Identity and
Sex-Role Socialization





Sex refers to the biological condition of being male or
female.
Sex Roles refer to social expectations associated with
biological sex.
Gender is the totality of being male or female.
Gender Roles are social expectations associated with
being masculine or feminine (and may not correspond
with one’s sex).
Gender Identity refers to the way one perceives or
defines oneself.
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Gender Identity and
Sex Role Socialization

Sexual and gender identity formation are
developmental processes.

These processes do not always involve an orderly
sequence of stages.

Identities change as a result of:
– Available social constructs;
– The socio-political landscape; and
– One’s own position in that landscape.
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Female–Male Differences

Males and Females Differ:
–
–
–
–

Normatively
Attitudinally
Behaviorally
Physically
The belief that sex differences are innate provides
ideological justification for a system of sex
stratification.
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Sex Role Socialization

Children learn appropriate sex roles early in life
through interaction with others.

Sex-typing persists in adulthood.

Gender Roles are Reinforced in:
–
–
–
–
–
Home
School
Workplace
Religious organizations
Mass media
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Single Parenting

At any given time, 30% of children live in single parent
households.
 Single parent households are more likely to be headed
by mothers than fathers.
 Mother-only families are much more likely to be poor,
to have higher levels of stress, and to have lower levels
of social integration.
 Single-parent fathers typically have higher levels of
education, are in the labor force, and are better situated
economically.
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All rights reserved.