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GOVERNMENT AND POLICY MAKING
The Rule Making Function
GOVERNMENT
AND
POLICYMAKING
 Policymaking
is the pivotal stage in the
political process.
 To understand public policy, we must know
decisions are made.
Government agencies are at the core of
policymaking.
 Two-way process:

Upward flow of influence and demands from society
 Downward flow of decisions from the government

STRUCTURES OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
CONSTITUTIONS AND
DECISION RULES
A
constitution establishes the basic
rules of decision-making, rights, and the
distribution of authority in a political
system.

Written constitutions important in political systems
based on the rule of law

Constitutions contain sets of decision rules.

These are the basic rules governing how decisions are made.
 Policymaking
- the conversion of social
interests and demands into authoritative
public decisions.

Constitutions establish the rules by which this happens.

Constitutions confer the power to propose policies on
specific groups and institutions.
CONSTITUTIONS AND DECISION RULES

Decision rules determine
what political resources are valuable in influencing
decision
 how to acquire and use these resources.


Different decision rules have different
attractions.

Inclusive rules (majority rule; cooperative rule)
Can protect against hasty decisions
 But they can also give a minority the power to block
proposals favored by a majority
 The more inclusive the voting rules are the less likely it
is that any decision can be made at all.


Less inclusive rules make it easier to reach a policy,
but many interests may be ignored.
CONSTITUTIONS AND
DECISION RULES

The government (as a whole) and its component
institutions have decision rules.
Numerous rules affect the policymaking process.
 In modern assemblies rules about voting - egalitarian rules;
one person, one vote



Dictatorships - decision making is hierarchical
 Pure hierarchy: only the vote of the person at the top counts
Democracy favors decision rules that are transparent and
stable.
When decisions are made through equal voting, the
inclusiveness of the decision rule still shapes the outcome.
DEMOCRACY AND AUTHORITARIANISM

The most important distinction in policymaking
is between democratic and authoritarian
systems.

Democracy means government by the people.
Direct or indirect participation by the public
 Institutions facilitate indirect participation: elections,
competitive political parties, free mass media,
representative assemblies


Authoritarian regimes - policymakers are chosen by
military councils, hereditary families, dominant political
parties and the like.

Citizens are either ignored or pressed into symbolic assent.
BASIC DECISION RULES OF POLITICAL
SYSTEMS - BOTH DEMOCRATIC AND
AUTHORITARIAN - DIFFER ALONG THREE
IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS:
The separation of powers between different
branches of government
 The geographic distribution of authority
between the central (national) government and
lower levels, such as states, provinces, or
municipalities
 Limitations on government authority

SEPARATION OF GOVERNMENT POWERS

Theory of separation of powers
Locke and Montesquieu
 Madison and Hamilton


Classic separation of powers theory

Argued there are two forms of representative democratic
government
 Presidential





Two separate agencies of government: executive and legislative
Separately elected and authorized by the people
Fixed terms; cannot unseat the other branch; each with specific powers
Coordination must be achieved to make policy
Parliamentary




Executive and legislative branches are interdependent
Legislative branch directly elected; prime minister and cabinet emerge
from the legislature
Confidence relationship
Do not experience the form of divided government that is common under
presidentialism
SEPARATION OF GOVERNMENT POWERS

Not all democracies fit neatly into the
presidential or parliamentary category.




France- “semi-presidential”
In some mixed types, the president and the legislature
are separately elected, but the president has the power
to dissolve the legislature.
In such systems, the cabinet may be appointed by the
president, but subject to dismissal by the legislature.
Debates have emerged as to the “best” system.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF
GOVERNMENT POWER
 Confederal
- U.S. under the Articles of
Confederation
 Federal - U.S., Germany, Russia, India,
Nigeria, Mexico, and Brazil
 Unitary - Britain, France, China, Japan
and Iran
Most of the world’s states are unitary
 Only 18 states are federal

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
GOVERNMENT POWER

OF
Federalism is commonly thought to have several
advantages:



In culturally divided societies it may help protect ethnic,
linguistic, or religious minorities, particularly if they are
geographically concentrated.
Serve as a check on overly ambitious rules and thus
protect markets and citizen freedoms
May allow subunits to experiment with different policy
programs
But it promotes choice and diversity at the
expense of equality.
 Sometimes there is a discrepancy between formal
and actual federalism: Mexico

LIMITATIONS ON
GOVERNMENT POWER
 Constitutional

Civil rights protected


regimes
Courts are crucial to the limitations on governmental
power.
Judicial review
Lijphart characterizes only four of the 36
democratic systems he examines as having “strong”
judicial review.
 Often in constitution but harder to implement in
practice


Amending procedures

Vary widely
CHECKING THE TOP
POLICYMAKERS
 Challenge:
control the excesses of the top
political leaders


Authoritarian systems: problematic
Representative Democracies: procedures vary
between types of systems
Parliamentary system: removed virtually at any time
 Presidential system: impeachment

Associated with constitutions having powerful presidencies
with fixed terms of office
 Direct Ultimate control of democratic order is periodic and
competitive elections.


Direct Democracy – the people as the check
ASSEMBLY FUNCTIONS
Deliberate, debate, and vote on policies that come
before them.
 Control public spending decisions (sort of)
 Some have important appointment powers.
 Some may serve as a court of appeals.
 Range in terms of their role as policymaking
agencies:

U.S. - highly active role; National People’s
 Congress of the People’s Republic of China,
rubberstamp function


Assemblies should not be viewed only as
legislative bodies.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE

Typically the most important structure in
policymaking








The executive normally initiates new policies.
May have role in adoption
Typically has veto powers
Oversees policy implementation
Recruitment function
Conduct affects trust and confidence in the political
system
Central role in communication, in explaining and
building support for new policies
Improving the performance in various sectors of society
and economy
POLITICAL EXECUTIVES
 In
modern states, the executive branch is by
far the largest, the most complex, and
typically the most powerful branch of
government.

Chief executives

Single or split

Divided between effective power over policy, purely ceremonial
roles or both
Presidents and Prime Ministers
 Chairman of the Communist Party in China
 Monarchs

 Advantages
the split system
RECRUITMENT OF CHIEF
EXECUTIVES
 Recruitment




structures
Competitive party systems
Noncompetitive parties and military
organizations
Authoritarian systems rarely have effective
procedures for leadership succession.
Poorer nations show substantially less
stability and the regimes have usually had less
experience at surviving succession crises.

African nations: repeated coups
THE CABINET

In some political systems, the Cabinet is the most
important collective decision-making body.


Very powerful in parliamentary systems
Selection


Presidential systems: presidential prerogative with
legislative approval; President can dismiss Cabinet
members; legislature severely limited in this area
Parliamentary systems: formation depends on the result
of parliamentary elections and on the composition of
Parliament
Majority single-party cabinet
 Coalition cabinet
