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Chapter 1
What IS human development?
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-1
Defining human development
Human development can be defined as a process of
progressive changes in people’s lives over time that
enables them to adapt more effectively to their
environments.
Points to note about this definition:
• People always have many forms of connections with one
another
• What counts as progress is not unproblematic
• Change is always happening
• We are interested in the conditions that enhance people’s lives,
so that we can live well in the situations in which we find
ourselves
• Place shapes and locates the conditions of our lives
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-2
A social constructionist approach
• Ideas about developmental progress:
– Change over time
– Are different at different times in history
– Foreground different assumptions from time to time
• Developmental progress is not one-directional:
– It is not a single line, marching towards a single goal
– It is complex and is made up of many strands
• There is no single truth about ‘right’ development
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-3
Development: a broader picture
• Evolutionary theory encouraged those interested in
social progress to think that:
– Some developmental changes help the species survive
– Developmental change follows a pattern from primitive to
more highly evolved, in stages
– Speedy development through stages is an advantage
• The history of child development began with
attempts to chart predictable stages, or ‘normal’
development
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-4
The power of norms
• A norm can be defined as a statistically average
tendency, but it is often also seen as an expected
appearance or behaviour
• We derive norms by tracing patterns of
development by individuals, finding the average,
then generalising them
• This approach is seen as scientific:
– It allows prediction, and
– Offers criteria for measuring developmental progress
• A norm is sometimes seen as an ideal
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-5
However
• Following the norm does not guarantee successful
development
• Developing faster than the norm may not always
be useful
• Different cultures value different developmental
outcomes
• Adaptability is generally thought of as preferable
for the success of a species
• Plasticity refers to flexibility in the way an
individual develops
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-6
Big debates: stages of development
• Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development
– Children develop new ways of thinking as their brains develop
– Cognitive development is also a response to environmental
stimulation
– All children’s cognition goes through the same stages
– The ultimate cognitive ability is logical thinking
• Sigmund Freud: Sexual-Emotional Development
– Sexuality is the energising force of personality
– Internal conflict is caused by aspects of personality: id, ego,
superego
– Unconscious forces play a large part in how a person behaves
– How a person is treated as a child is important to how they turn
out as an adult
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-7
Jean Piaget: stages of cognitive
development
• Sensori-motor
– Reflexes are the beginning of interaction and cognition
– Primary and secondary circular reactions are practice for
beginning to control self and the world
• Pre-operational
– The child begins to use logical rules, but in an
experimental way
• Concrete operational
– The child can use logic to manipulate things in the world
• Formal operational
– The child is able to think logically about abstract issues
.
Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-8
Jean Piaget: how children learn
• Children adapt to their environment by:
– Assimilation: using a familiar schema to work on the
world
– Accommodation: adapting a familiar schema to the new
situation
• Development proceeds through both assimilation
and accommodation
• Humans aim for a balance between old and new
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-9
Critiques of Piaget’s theory
• As a biologist he was seeking universal principles
• Can be interpreted as a prescription for
development of individuals
• Does not allow for diverse outcomes
• Suggests even development across all areas of
cognition
• Invites a stage approach to the presentation of
new learning opportunities
• Reflects a particular Euro-Western view of
education and preferred learning goals
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-10
Sigmund Freud: theory of sexualemotional development
• Much of development is about learning to fit in with
notions of manhood and womanhood appropriate
to one’s culture
• Same-gender parent-child relationships provide
the child with a model of emotional life
• The partner/spouse of that parent provide a model
of the child’s future love relationships
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-11
Freud’s stage theory
• Oral: the infant’s emotional energies are involved
in coping with issues related to the oral – feeding,
weaning and cutting teeth
• Anal: the importance of controlling personal
expressions as the very young child becomes an
acceptable member of society
• Phallic: the child develops a sense of its sexuality,
learning to desire the parent of the opposite sex
• Latency: children’s sexual awareness is latent
during the primary school years
• Genital: the child moves towards a heterosexual
relationship and integration of the emotional
battles of the earlier stages
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-12
Critiques of Freud’s theory
• Focus on sexuality is better understood as about
the ‘life force’
• Explanatory power of this theory continues to
capture the minds of many theorists
• Some critics have thought he generalised too
much from his therapeutic work, particularly with
women who had been abused
• The theory assumes hetero-sexual relationships
are the dominant form of human relationship
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-13
Big debates: development in cultural
context
• Lev Vygotsky: thought about how children’s
learning – their ‘mind’ – is achieved within cultural
and historical contexts
• Urie Bronfenbrenner: drew attention to the broader
range of systems within which a child’s
development proceeds
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-14
Lev Vygotsky
• Different cultures provide different settings and
different learning outcomes
• Each culture has its own ‘cultural curriculum’
• Development occurs in interactions with people
• Thus, development is co-constructed
• Language is a central tool in this process
• Children learn in interaction with adults, working
within the zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• Scaffolding is the process of supporting learning
within the child’s ZPD
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-15
Urie Bronfenbrenner
• Developmental processes increase in complexity
over time in people’s lives
• Used ideas about interlinking social ‘systems’ to
talk about five kinds of contexts that surround the
individual child.
• Development is always grounded in a particular
society at a particular time in history
• Drew attention to the interaction between different
aspects of a person’s ‘ecology’
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-16
Bronfenbrenner’s nested systems
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
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Complex constructionist ecology
• Developmental outcomes are the result of
complex interactions
• Complexity: there is almost never a single cause
for a developmental outcome
• To think ecologically is to consider the person in
a complex situation or set of situations
• The quality of the interactions and the environment
produce developmental outcomes
• Development is constructed. That is, it is a
product of multiple interactions; it is not inevitable
or ‘natural’
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Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development
1-18