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AN INTRODUCTION TO
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
A guide for A level students
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
2008
SPECIFICATIONS
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students understand
selected topics at AS and A2 level Chemistry. It is based on the requirements of
the AQA and OCR specifications but is suitable for other examination boards.
Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes or it may
be used for classroom teaching if an interactive white board is available.
Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A2 topics, are available
from the KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE WEBSITE at...
www.knockhardy.org.uk/sci.htm
Navigation is achieved by...
either
clicking on the grey arrows at the foot of each page
or
using the left and right arrow keys on the keyboard
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CONTENTS
• Scope of organic chemistry
• Special nature of carbon
• Types of formulae
• Homologous series
• Functional groups
• Nomenclature
• Investigating molecules
• Revision check list
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Before you start it would be helpful to…
• Recall how covalent bonding arises
• Recall simple electron pair repulsion theory
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. It is such a complex branch of
chemistry because...
• CARBON ATOMS FORM STRONG COVALENT BONDS TO EACH OTHER
• THE CARBON-CARBON BONDS CAN BE SINGLE, DOUBLE OR TRIPLE
• CARBON ATOMS CAN BE ARRANGED IN
STRAIGHT CHAINS
BRANCHED CHAINS
and RINGS
• OTHER ATOMS/GROUPS OF ATOMS CAN BE PLACED ON THE CARBON ATOMS
• GROUPS CAN BE PLACED IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS ON A CARBON SKELETON
SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON - CATENATION
CATENATION is the ability to form bonds between atoms of the same element.
Carbon forms chains and rings, with single, double and triple covalent bonds, because it
is able to FORM STRONG COVALENT BONDS WITH OTHER CARBON ATOMS
Carbon forms a vast number of carbon compounds because of the strength of the C-C
covalent bond. Other Group IV elements can do it but their chemistry is limited due to
the weaker bond strength.
BOND
ATOMIC RADIUS
BOND ENTHALPY
C-C
0.077 nm
+348 kJmol-1
Si-Si
0.117 nm
+176 kJmol-1
The larger the atoms, the weaker the bond. Shielding due to filled inner orbitals and greater
distance from the nucleus means that the shared electron pair is held less strongly.
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
CHAINS AND RINGS
CARBON ATOMS CAN BE ARRANGED IN
STRAIGHT CHAINS
BRANCHED CHAINS
and
RINGS
You can also get a combination of rings and chains
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
MULTIPLE BONDING AND SUBSTITUENTS
CARBON-CARBON COVALENT BONDS CAN BE SINGLE, DOUBLE OR TRIPLE
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
MULTIPLE BONDING AND SUBSTITUENTS
CARBON-CARBON COVALENT BONDS CAN BE SINGLE, DOUBLE OR TRIPLE
DIFFERENT ATOMS / GROUPS OF ATOMS CAN BE PLACED ON THE CARBONS
The basic atom is HYDROGEN but groups containing OXYGEN, NITROGEN,
HALOGENS and SULPHUR are very common.
CARBON SKELETON
FUNCTIONAL
GROUP
CARBON SKELETON
FUNCTIONAL
GROUP
The chemistry of an organic compound is determined by its FUNCTIONAL GROUP
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
MULTIPLE BONDING AND SUBSTITUENTS
ATOMS/GROUPS CAN BE PLACED IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS ON A CARBON SKELETON
THE C=C DOUBLE BOND IS IN A DIFFERENT POSITION
PENT-1-ENE
PENT-2-ENE
THE CHLORINE ATOM IS IN A DIFFERENT POSITION
1-CHLOROBUTANE
2-CHLOROBUTANE
TYPES OF FORMULAE - 1
MOLECULAR FORMULA
The exact number of atoms of each
element present in the molecule
C4H10
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
The simplest whole number ratio
of atoms in the molecule
C2H5
STRUCTURAL FORMULA
The minimal detail using conventional
groups, for an unambiguous structure
CH3CH2CH2CH3
DISPLAYED FORMULA
Shows both the relative placing of atoms
and the number of bonds between them
THE EXAMPLE BEING
USED IS...
BUTANE
CH3CH(CH3)CH3
there are two possible structures
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H C H
H
H
TYPES OF FORMULAE - 2
SKELETAL FORMULA
A skeletal formula is used to show a simplified organic formula by removing hydrogen
atoms from alkyl chains, leaving just a carbon skeleton and associated functional groups
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
for
CH2
CYCLOHEXANE
THALIDOMIDE
TYPES OF FORMULAE - 2
SKELETAL FORMULA
A skeletal formula is used to show a simplified organic formula by removing hydrogen
atoms from alkyl chains, leaving just a carbon skeleton and associated functional groups
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
for
CH2
CYCLOHEXANE
GENERAL FORMULA
Represents any member of
a homologous series
THALIDOMIDE
for alkanes it is...
possible formulae...
CnH2n+2
CH4, C2H6 .... C99H200
The formula does not apply to cyclic compounds such as cyclohexane is C6H12
- by joining the atoms in a ring you need fewer H’s
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A series of compounds of similar structure in which each member differs from the next
by a common repeating unit, CH2. Series members are called homologues and...
• all share the same general formula.
• formula of a homologue differs from its neighbour by CH2. (e.g. CH4, C2H6, ... etc )
• contain the same functional group
• have similar chemical properties.
• show a gradual change in physical properties as molar mass increases.
• can usually be prepared by similar methods.
ALCOHOLS - FIRST THREE MEMBERS OF THE SERIES
CH3OH
METHANOL
C2H5OH
ETHANOL
C3H7OH
PROPAN-1-OL
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Organic chemistry is a vast subject so it is easier to split it into small sections for study.
This is done by studying compounds which behave in a similar way because they have
a particular atom, or group of atoms, FUNCTIONAL GROUP, in their structure.
Functional groups can consist of one atom, a group of atoms or multiple bonds
between carbon atoms.
Each functional group has its own distinctive properties which means that the
properties of a compound are governed by the functional group(s) in it.
H H H H H
H H H H H
H C C C C C
NH2
OH
H H H H H
H H H H H
Carbon
skeleton
H C C C C C
Functional
Group = AMINE
Carbon
skeleton
Functional
Group = ALCOHOL
COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
GROUP
ENDING
ALKANE
- ane
ALKENE
ALKYNE
GENERAL FORMULA
RH
EXAMPLE
C2H6
ethane
- ene
C2H4
ethene
- yne
C2H2
ethyne
HALOALKANE
halo -
RX
C2H5Cl
chloroethane
ALCOHOL
- ol
ROH
C2H5OH
ethanol
-al
RCHO
CH3CHO
ethanal
KETONE
- one
RCOR
CH3COCH3
propanone
CARBOXYLIC ACID
- oic acid
RCOOH
CH3COOH
ethanoic acid
ACYL CHLORIDE
- oyl chloride
RCOCl
CH3COCl
ethanoyl chloride
AMIDE
- amide
RCONH2
CH3CONH2
ethanamide
ESTER
- yl - oate
RCOOR
CH3COOCH3
methyl ethanoate
NITRILE
- nitrile
RCN
CH3CN
ethanenitrile
AMINE
- amine
RNH2
CH3NH2
methylamine
NITRO
nitro-
RNO2
CH3NO2
nitromethane
ALDEHYDE
You will not meet these until you study A2 Chemistry.
COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
ALKANE
CARBOXYLIC ACID
ALKENE
ALKYNE
ESTER
HALOALKANE
AMINE
NITRILE
ACYL CHLORIDE
AMIDE
ALCOHOL
NITRO
ALDEHYDE
KETONE
HOW MANY STRUCTURES?
Draw legitimate structures for each molecular formula and classify each one according
to the functional group present. Not all the structures represent stable compounds.
carbon atoms have
oxygen atoms
nitrogen atoms
hydrogen
halogen atoms
4 covalent bonds surrounding them
2
3
1
1
C2H6
ONE
C3H7Br
TWO
C4H8
FIVE - 3 with C=C and 2 ring compounds with all C-C’s
C2H6O
TWO - 1 with C-O-C and 1 with C-O-H
C3H6O
SIX - 2 with C=O, 2 with C=C and 2 with rings
C2H7N
TWO
C2H4O2
SEVERAL - Only 2 are stable
C2H3N
TWO
HOW MANY STRUCTURES?
Draw legitimate structures for each molecular formula and classify each one according
to the functional group present. Not all the structures represent stable compounds.
carbon atoms have
oxygen atoms
nitrogen atoms
hydrogen
halogen atoms
4 covalent bonds surrounding them
2
3
1
1
C2H6
ONE
C3H7Br
TWO
C4H8
FIVE - 3 with C=C and 2 ring compounds with all C-C’s
C2H6O
TWO - 1 with C-O-C and 1 with C-O-H
C3H6O
SIX - 2 with C=O, 2 with C=C and 2 with rings
C2H7N
TWO
C2H4O2
SEVERAL - Only 2 are stable
C2H3N
TWO
NOMENCLATURE
Ideally a naming system should tell you everything about a structure without ambiguity.
There are two types of naming system commonly found in organic chemistry;
Trivial :
Systematic :
based on some property or historical aspect;
the name tells you little about the structure
based on an agreed set of rules (I.U.P.A.C);
exact structure can be found from the name (and vice-versa).
trivial name
paraffin
olefin
fatty acid
trivial name
methane
butane
acetic acid
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
systematic name
example(s)
alkane
methane, butane
alkene
ethene, butene
alkanoic (carboxylic) acid
ethanoic acid
INDIVIDUAL COMPOUNDS
derivation
systematic name
methu = wine (Gk.)
methane (CH4)
butyrum = butter (Lat.)
butane (C4H10)
acetum = vinegar (Lat.)
ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
A systematic name has two main parts.
STEM
number of carbon atoms in longest chain bearing the functional group +
a prefix showing the position and identity of any side-chain substituents.
Apart from the first four, which have trivial
names, the number of carbons atoms is indicated
by a prefix derived from the Greek numbering
system.
The list of alkanes demonstrate the use of prefixes.
The ending -ane is the same as they are all
alkanes.
Prefix
methethpropbutpenthexheptoctnondec-
C atoms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Alkane
methane
ethane
propane
butane
pentane
hexane
heptane
octane
nonane
decane
Working out which is the longest chain can pose a problem with larger molecules.
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
How long is a chain?
Because organic molecules are three dimensional and paper is two dimensional it
can confusing when comparing molecules. This is because...
1. It is too complicated to draw molecules with the correct bond angles
2. Single covalent bonds are free to rotate
All the following written structures are of the same molecule - PENTANE C5H12
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3
CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH3
CH3
CH2 CH2
A simple way to check is to run a finger along the chain and see how many carbon
atoms can be covered without reversing direction or taking the finger off the page.
In all the above there are... FIVE CARBON ATOMS IN A LINE.
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
How long is the longest chain?
Look at the structures and work out how many carbon atoms are in the longest chain.
CH3
THE ANSWERS ARE
ON THE NEXT SLIDE
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
How long is the longest chain?
Look at the structures and work out how many carbon atoms are in the longest chain.
CH3
LONGEST CHAIN = 5
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
LONGEST CHAIN = 6
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
LONGEST CHAIN = 6
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
A systematic name has two main parts.
SUFFIX An ending that tells you which functional group is present
See if any functional groups are present.
Add relevant ending to the basic stem.
In many cases the position of the functional
group must be given to avoid any ambiguity
1-CHLOROBUTANE
SUBSTITUENTS
Functional group
Suffix
ALKANE
ALKENE
ALKYNE
ALCOHOL
ALDEHYDE
KETONE
ACID
- ANE
- ENE
- YNE
- OL
- AL
- ONE
- OIC ACID
2-CHLOROBUTANE
Many compounds have substituents (additional atoms, or groups)
attached to the chain. Their position is numbered.
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
SIDE-CHAIN
carbon based substituents are named before the chain name.
they have the prefix -yl added to the basic stem (e.g. CH3 is methyl).
Alkyl radicals
methyl
CH3 -
CH3
ethyl
propyl
CH3- CH2CH3- CH2- CH2-
C2H5
C3H7
Number the principal chain from one end to give the lowest numbers.
Side-chain names appear in alphabetical order
butyl, ethyl, methyl, propyl
Each side-chain is given its own number.
If identical side-chains appear more than once, prefix with di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa
Numbers are separated from names by a HYPHEN
e.g.
2-methylheptane
Numbers are separated from numbers by a COMMA
e.g. 2,3-dimethylbutane
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
SIDE-CHAIN
carbon based substituents are named before the chain name.
they have the prefix -yl added to the basic stem (e.g. CH3 is methyl).
Alkyl radicals
methyl
CH3 -
CH3
ethyl
propyl
CH3- CH2CH3- CH2- CH2-
C2H5
C3H7
Number the principal chain from one end to give the lowest numbers.
Side-chain names appear in alphabetical order
butyl, ethyl, methyl, propyl
Each side-chain is given its own number.
If identical side-chains appear more than once, prefix with di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa
Numbers are separated from names by a HYPHEN
e.g.
Numbers are separated from numbers by a COMMA
e.g. 2,3-dimethylbutane
Example
longest chain 8 (it is an octane)
3,4,6 are the numbers NOT 3,5,6
order is ethyl, methyl, propyl
3-ethyl-5-methyl-4-propyloctane
2-methylheptane
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH
CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH
CH
CH2
CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
Apply the rules and name these alkanes
THE ANSWERS ARE ON THE NEXT SLIDE
CH3
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
Apply the rules and name these alkanes
CH3
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
Apply the rules and name these alkanes
Longest chain = 5 so it is a pentane
CH3
A CH3, methyl, group is attached to the
third carbon from one end...
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
3-methylpentane
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
Apply the rules and name these alkanes
Longest chain = 5 so it is a pentane
CH3
A CH3, methyl, group is attached to the
third carbon from one end...
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
3-methylpentane
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
Longest chain = 6 so it is a hexane
A CH3, methyl, group is attached to the
second carbon from one end...
2-methylhexane
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
I.U.P.A.C. NOMENCLATURE
Apply the rules and name these alkanes
Longest chain = 5 so it is a pentane
CH3
A CH3, methyl, group is attached to the
third carbon from one end...
CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
3-methylpentane
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
Longest chain = 6 so it is a hexane
A CH3, methyl, group is attached to the
second carbon from one end...
2-methylhexane
CH3
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
Longest chain = 6 so it is a hexane
CH3, methyl, groups are attached to the
third and fourth carbon atoms
(whichever end you count from).
3,4-dimethylhexane
NAMING ALKENES
Length
In alkenes the principal chain is not always the longest chain
It must contain the double bond
the name ends in -ENE
Position
Count from one end as with alkanes.
Indicated by the lower numbered carbon atom on one end of the C=C bond
5
4
3
2
1
CH3CH2CH=CHCH3
Side-chain
is pent-2-ene
(NOT pent-3-ene)
Similar to alkanes
position is based on the number allocated to the double bond
1
2
3
4
CH2 = CH(CH3)CH2CH3
2-methylbut-1-ene
1
2
3
4
CH2 = CHCH(CH3)CH3
3-methylbut-1-ene
WHICH COMPOUND IS IT?
Elucidation of the structures of organic compounds - a brief summary
Organic chemistry is so vast that the identification of a compound can be involved. The
characterisation takes place in a series of stages (see below). Relatively large amounts
of substance were required to elucidate the structure but, with modern technology and
the use of electronic instrumentation, very small amounts are now required.
Elemental composition
One assumes that organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen but it can be
proved by letting the compound undergo combustion. Carbon is converted to carbon
dioxide and hydrogen is converted to water.
Percentage composition by mass
Found by dividing the mass of an element present by the mass of the compound
present, then multiplying by 100. Elemental mass of C and H can be found by allowing
the substance to undergo complete combustion. From this one can find...
mass of carbon
mass of hydrogen
=
=
12/44 of the mass of CO2 produced
2/18 of the mass of H2O produced
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Empirical formula
The simplest ratio of elements present in the substance. It is calculated by dividing the
mass or percentage mass of each element by its molar mass and finding the simplest
ratio between the answers. Empirical formula is converted to the molecular formula
using molecular mass.
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Empirical formula
The simplest ratio of elements present in the substance. It is calculated by dividing the
mass or percentage mass of each element by its molar mass and finding the simplest
ratio between the answers. Empirical formula is converted to the molecular formula
using molecular mass.
Molecular mass
Traditionally found out using a variety of techniques such as ... volumetric analysis or
molar volume methods (Dumas, Victor-Meyer or gas syringe experiments). Mass
spectrometry is now used. The m/z value of the molecular ion and gives the molecular
mass. The fragmentation pattern gives information about the compound.
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Empirical formula
The simplest ratio of elements present in the substance. It is calculated by dividing the
mass or percentage mass of each element by its molar mass and finding the simplest
ratio between the answers. Empirical formula is converted to the molecular formula
using molecular mass.
Molecular mass
Traditionally found out using a variety of techniques such as ... volumetric analysis or
molar volume methods (Dumas, Victor-Meyer or gas syringe experiments). Mass
spectrometry is now used. The m/z value of the molecular ion and gives the molecular
mass. The fragmentation pattern gives information about the compound.
Molecular formula
The molecular formula is an exact multiple of the empirical formula. Comparing the
molecular mass with the empirical mass allows one to find the true formula. e.g.
if the empirical formula is CH (relative mass = 13) and the molecular mass is 78
the molecular formula will be 78/13 or 6 times the empirical formula i.e. C6H6 .
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Empirical formula
The simplest ratio of elements present in the substance. It is calculated by dividing the
mass or percentage mass of each element by its molar mass and finding the simplest
ratio between the answers. Empirical formula is converted to the molecular formula
using molecular mass.
Molecular mass
Traditionally found out using a variety of techniques such as ... volumetric analysis or
molar volume methods (Dumas, Victor-Meyer or gas syringe experiments). Mass
spectrometry is now used. The m/z value of the molecular ion and gives the molecular
mass. The fragmentation pattern gives information about the compound.
Molecular formula
The molecular formula is an exact multiple of the empirical formula. Comparing the
molecular mass with the empirical mass allows one to find the true formula. e.g.
if the empirical formula is CH (relative mass = 13) and the molecular mass is 78
the molecular formula will be 78/13 or 6 times the empirical formula i.e. C6H6 .
Structural formula
Because of the complexity of organic molecules, there can be more than one structure
for a given molecular formula. To work out the structure, different tests are carried out.
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Empirical formula
The simplest ratio of elements present in the substance. It is calculated by dividing the
mass or percentage mass of each element by its molar mass and finding the simplest
ratio between the answers. Empirical formula is converted to the molecular formula
using molecular mass.
Molecular mass
Traditionally found out using a variety of techniques such as ... volumetric analysis or
molar volume methods (Dumas, Victor-Meyer or gas syringe experiments). Mass
spectrometry is now used. The m/z value of the molecular ion and gives the molecular
mass. The fragmentation pattern gives information about the compound.
Molecular formula
The molecular formula is an exact multiple of the empirical formula. Comparing the
molecular mass with the empirical mass allows one to find the true formula. e.g.
if the empirical formula is CH (relative mass = 13) and the molecular mass is 78
the molecular formula will be 78/13 or 6 times the empirical formula i.e. C6H6 .
Structural formula
Because of the complexity of organic molecules, there can be more than one structure
for a given molecular formula. To work out the structure, different tests are carried out.
INVESTIGATING MOLECULES
Chemical
Chemical reactions can identify the functional group(s) present.
Spectroscopy
IR
detects bond types due to absorbance of i.r. radiation
NMR
gives information about the position and relative
numbers of hydrogen atoms present in a molecule
By
comparison of IR or NMR spectra and
mass spectrometry
Confirmation
REVISION CHECK
What should you be able to do?
Recall and explain the reasons for the large number of carbon based compounds
Be able to write out possible structures for a given molecular formula
Recognize the presence of a particular functional group in a structure
Know the IUPAC rules for naming alkanes and alkenes
Be able to name given alkanes and alkenes when given the structure
Be able to write out the structure of an alkane or alkene when given its name
Recall the methods used to characterise organic molecules
CAN YOU DO ALL OF THESE?
YES
NO
You need to go over the
relevant topic(s) again
Click on the button to
return to the menu
WELL DONE!
Try some past paper questions
AN INTRODUCTION TO
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
THE END
© 2008 JONATHAN HOPTON & KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING