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The Axial Skeleton
EFE Veterinary Science
Basic Concepts
Types of Bones
Long, short, and flat bones. 1,
Proximal and distal epiphyses; 1′,
epiphysial cartilage; 2, diaphysis
of a young dog's radius; 3, carpal
bone of a horse; 4, parietal bone
from the skull of a dog.
Structure of Bones
A, A long bone (bovine humerus)
sectioned longitudinally. B, Osteone
with central (haversian) canal. 1,
Articular cartilage; 2, spongy bone;
2′, epiphysial cartilage; 3, compact
bone; 4, periosteum, partly
reflected; 5, nutrient foramen; 6,
marrow cavity; 7, roughened area for
attachment of muscle or ligament; 8,
distal extent of medial epicondyle; 9,
tendons of origin of carpal and
digital flexors.
Blood Supply of a Long Bone
The blood supply of a long bone, schematic. The supply of the cortex is shown (enlarged) in
the center. 1, Epiphysial arteries; 2, metaphysial arteries; 3, nutrient artery; 4, 4′, artery and
vein of the bone marrow; 5, periosteal arteries; 5′, periosteal vein; 6, anastomosis between
periosteal and bone marrow arteries; 7, capillaries of the cortex; 8, sinusoids in the bone
marrow; 9, growth cartilage; 10, cortex.
Structure of Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Proximal end of the humerus of a
cow, sectioned sagittally, as an
example of the architecture of
spongy bone
Specialized Bones
Sesamoid bone
Splanchnic Bone
Pneumatic Bone
Fibrous Joints
Sutures between the bones of a puppy's
skull. 1, Parietal bone; 2, frontal bone; 3,
fontanelle (fonticulus); 4, orbit.
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
A, A synovial joint in section. 1, Joint
cavity; 2, synovial membrane; 3,
articular cartilage; 4, fibrous layer of
joint capsule; 5, periosteum; 6,
compact bone.
Synovial Joints
B, Scanning electron micrograph of villi projecting from the synovial membrane of the
equine fetlock joint; greatly enlarged.
Synovial Joints
The seven types of synovial joints,
with examples. A, Plane joint:
articular processes of equine
cervical vertebrae. B, Hinge joint:
equine fetlock
(metacarpophalangeal) joint. C,
Pivot joint: bovine atlantoaxial joint
(cranial view). D, Condylar joint:
canine femorotibial joint (stifle). E,
Ellipsoidal joint: canine carpus. F,
Saddle joint: canine distal
interphalangeal joint. G, Spheroidal
joint: canine hip joint (caudodorsal
view). 1, Proximal sesamoid bone; 2,
spine of axis; 3, dorsal arch of atlas;
4, dens of axis; 5, ventral arch of
atlas; 6, radius; 7, ulna; 8, proximal
row of carpal bones.
Ligaments
Cranial view of left stifle joint of the dog,
resected to show intracapsular (1, 2) and
extracapsular (6, 8) ligaments. 1, Cranial
cruciate ligament; 2, caudal cruciate
ligament; 3, medial meniscus; 4, lateral
meniscus; 5, tendon of origin of long
digital extensor; 6, lateral collateral
ligament; 7, patellar ligament; 8, medial
collateral ligament; 9, medial condyle,
partly removed.
Muscles
Limb movements
illustrated by the femurs of
the dog, cranial view. 1,
Adduction; 2, abduction; 3,
circumduction; 4, inward
rotation; 5, outward
rotation.
Flexion, extension, and
overextension illustrated by the
distal part of the horse's forelimb. 1,
Flexed carpal joint; 2, extended
carpal joint; 3, flexed fetlock joint; 4,
extended fetlock joint; 5,
overextended fetlock joint.
Muscles
Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac
Muscles
Tendons
Tendons attach muscles to bones.
Tendons
Protective Structures for Tendons
Sections of a synovial bursa (A) and a tendon sheath (B). The bursa permits
frictionless movement of a tendon (1) over bone, and the sheath permits
movement of a tendon over bone and under a retinaculum. The arrows show
that a tendon sheath may be regarded as a large bursa that has wrapped
around a tendon. 1, Tendon; 2, bursa; 3, retinaculum; 4, tendon sheath; 5,
mesotendon, through which blood vessels reach the tendon; 6, bone.
Axial Skeleton: Overview
Vertebral Structure
Lumbar vertebra of the dog, left lateral view. 1, Spinous process; 2, cranial articular
process; 3, transverse process; 4, body; 5, caudal vertebral notch; 6, arch; 7, caudal
articular process.
Cervical Vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae of the dog; cranial is to the left. A, Atlas, dorsal view. B, Axis,
lateral view. C, Fifth vertebra, lateral view. 1, Wing of atlas; 2, fovea dentis; 3,
lateral vertebral foramen; 4, transverse foramen; 5, dens; 6, spinous process; 7,
caudal articular process; 8, transverse process; 9, body; 10, cranial articular
process; 11, position of vertebral foramen.
Atlantooccipital Joint (Dog)
Canine atlantooccipital joint, dorsal view; the dorsal arch of the atlas has been
removed. 1, Skull; 2, atlantooccipital joint capsule; 3, wing of atlas; 3′, dorsal
arch of atlas, resected; 4, atlantoaxial joint capsule; 5, axis; 5′, spine of axis, its
overhanging cranial portion having been removed; 6, dens; 7, transverse
ligament of atlas; 8, alar ligaments; 9, apical ligament of dens; 10, dorsal
margin of foramen magnum
Intervertebral Disc (Cow)
Bovine lumbar intervertebral disk. 1, Spinous process; 2, lamina; 3, synovial
intervertebral joint; 4, articular process of adjacent vertebra; 5, vertebral canal
with contents (spinal cord and meninges surrounded by epidural fat); 6,
nucleus pulposus; 7, anulus fibrosus.
Vertebral Ligaments
Ligaments of the vertebral column. Paramedian section of lumbar vertebrae of a
dog; viewed from the left. 1, Supraspinous ligament; 2, spinous process; 3,
interspinous ligament; 4, arch of vertebra; 5, interarcuate ligament; 6,
intervertebral foramen; 7, dorsal longitudinal ligament; 8, ventral longitudinal
ligament; 9, intervertebral disk.
Neck and Nuchal Ligament (Dog)
Nuchal ligament of the dog. 1, Wing of atlas; 2, spinous process of axis; 3, nuchal
ligament; 4, spinous process of first thoracic vertebra; 5, platelike extension of
transverse process.
Thoracic Vertebra
Thoracic vertebra of the dog; left lateral view. 1, Spinous process; 2, caudal
articular process; 3, transverse process with costal fovea; 4, mamillary
process; 5, caudal vertebral notch; 6, 7, costal foveae; 8, body.
Form Follows Function
Contrast the orientation (arrows) of the articular surfaces of a cervical
(left) and a lumbar (right) vertebra of the dog, caudal view.
Lumbar Vertebrae (Dog)
Lumbar vertebrae of the dog, left lateral view. 1, Mamillary process; 2,
accessory process; 3, spinous process; 4, transverse process; 5, body; 6,
intervertebral disk.
Sacrum and Caudal Vertebrae (Dog)
Canine sacrum and caudal vertebrae. A, Sacrum, ventral view. B, Sacrum, dorsal
view. C, Sacrum, cranial view. D, Caudal vertebra, dorsal view. E, Caudal vertebra,
cranial view. 1, Promontory; 2, auricular articular surface; 3, ventral (3′ dorsal)
sacral foramina for ventral (3′ dorsal) branches of sacral nerves; 4, spinous
process; 5, rudimentary articular process; 6, vertebral canal; 7, body; 8,
transverse process; 9, hemal arch, also called chevron; 10, cranial articular
Ribs (Dog)
Left rib of a dog, caudal view. B, Left rib of a dog articulating with two vertebrae,
lateral view. 1, Tubercle; 2, head; 3, neck; 4, angle; 5, body; 6, costochondral
junction; 7, costal cartilage; 8, intervertebral disk; 9, vertebra of same number as
rib.
Ribcage
A, Canine and B, equine sternum and costal
cartilages, ventral and left lateral views. 1,
Manubrium; 2, first rib; 3, sternebra; 4,
costochondral junction; 5, xiphoid cartilage;
6, costal arch; 7, floating rib.
Costovertebral Articulation
Costovertebral articulations; transverse section of the vertebral column of the dog
(about T8). 1, Lamina of vertebra; 2, intercapital ligament; 3, tubercle of rib; 4, head
of rib; 5, intervertebral disk; 6, dorsal longitudinal ligament; 7, costovertebral joint;
8, costotransverse joint covered by costotransverse ligament.
Hips and Pelvis (Dog)
Canine hip bones in left lateral (A) and ventral (B) views. Dorsal (C) view of equine
pelvis. The broken lines give the approximate extents of ilium, pubis, and ischium. 1,
Wing of ilium; 2, ventral iliac spines; 2′, coxal tuber; 3, dorsal iliac spines; 3′, sacral
tuber; 4, greater sciatic notch; 5, ischial spine; 6, pubis; 7, obturator foramen; 8,
ischium; 9, ischial tuber; 10, lesser sciatic notch; 11, acetabulum; 12, pelvic symphysis;
13, ischial arch; 14, iliopubic eminence; 15, auricular articular surface; 16, sacrum.
Sacrotuberous Ligament (Dog and
Cow)
Canine sacrotuberous ligament (A) and bovine sacrosciatic ligament (B), left lateral views.
1, Ilium; 2, sacrum; 3, caudal vertebra(e); 4, sacrotuberous ligament (in A), sacrosciatic
ligament (in B); 5, ischial spine; 6, acetabulum; 7, ischial tuber; 8, coxal tuber; 9, sacral
tuber; 10, greater sciatic foramen; 11, greater trochanter; 12, obturator foramen; 13,
lesser sciatic foramen.
Cutaneous Muscles (Dog)
Trunk Muscles (Dog)
Deep Trunk Muscles (Dog)
Deepest Trunk Muscles (dog)
The Diaphragm (Dog)
A, Cranial view of the canine diaphragm. B, Lateral view of the canine thorax showing
ribs and cranial extent of diaphragm in inspiration (broken lines) and expiration (solid
lines). 1, Left crus; 2, right crus; 3, aorta; 4, esophagus; 5, attachment of caudal
mediastinum to diaphragm; 6, sternal and costal parts of diaphragm; 7, tendinous
center; 8, attachment of plica venae cavae; 9, caudal vena cava.
Rectus Abdominus Muscles
Rectus sheath of the dog in transverse sections taken cranially (A) and caudal (B) to the
umbilicus and near the pubis (C). 1, External abdominal oblique; 2, internal abdominal
oblique; 3, transversus abdominis; 4, peritoneum; 5, cranial epigastric vessels; 5′,
cranial superficial epigastric vessels; 6, rectus abdominis; 7, fat-filled falciform
ligament; 8, linea alba; 9, caudal epigastric vessels; 9′, caudal superficial epigastric
vessels; 10, internal lamina of rectus sheath; 11, external lamina of rectus sheath; 12,
skin; 13, median ligament of the bladder.
Pelvic Muscles (Dog)
The Skull (Dog)
Lateral (A), dorsal (B), and ventral (C) views of the canine skull to show the extents of
the cranial bones. 1, Nasal bone; 2, incisive bone; 3, maxilla; 4, lacrimal bone; 5, orbit; 6,
frontal bone; 7, parietal bone; 8, occipital bone; 9, temporal bone; 10, zygomatic bone;
11, palatine bone; 12, presphenoid; 12′, wing of presphenoid; 13, pterygoid bone; 14,
basisphenoid; 14′, pterygoid process of basisphenoid; 15, vomer.
The Skull (Dog, dorsal view)
Dorsal view of canine skull. 1, Nasal aperture; 2, infraorbital foramen; 2′, maxillary
foramen; 3, fossa for lacrimal sac; 4, orbit; 4′, zygomatic process of frontal bone; 5,
zygomatic arch; 6, external sagittal crest; 7, nuchal crest; 8, external occipital
protuberance, 9, cranium
The Skull (Dog, lateral view)
Lateral view of canine skull. 1, Orbital ligament (inset); 2, infraorbital foramen; 3,
orbit; 4, pterygopalatine fossa; 5, optic canal, orbital fissure, and rostral alar
foramen; 6, retroarticular process; 7, retroarticular foramen; 8, external acoustic
meatus; 9, tympanic bulla; 10, stylomastoid foramen; 11, paracondylar process; 12,
occipital condyle; 13, nuchal surface; 14, mastoid process; 15, zygomatic arch; 16,
temporal fossa; 17, nuchal crest.
The Skull (Dog, ventral view)
Ventral view of canine skull. 1, Palatine fissure; 2, hard palate; 3, choanal region; 4,
oval foramen; 5, base of cranium; 6, foramen lacerum; 7, tympanic bulla; 8, jugular
foramen; 9, paracondylar process; 10, hypoglossal canal; 11, occipital condyle; 12,
foramen magnum
The mandible (Dog, lateral and medial
views)
Lateral (A) and medial (B) views of the left half of the canine mandible. 1, Coronoid
process; 2, vertical part (ramus); 3, condylar process; 4, angular process; 5, horizontal
part (body); 6, mental foramina; 7, mandibular foramen; 8, symphysial surface.
Hyoid Apparatus (Dog)
Hyoid apparatus and larynx suspended from the temporal region of a canine skull. 1,
External acoustic meatus; 2, tympanic bulla; 3, stylohyoid; 4, epihyoid; 5, ceratohyoid;
6, basihyoid; 7, thyrohyoid; 8, epiglottic cartilage; 9, thyroid cartilage; 10, cricoid
cartilage
Skull and Mandible (Cat)
Feline skull with mandible. 1, Infraorbital foramen; 2, orbit; 3, zygomatic arch; 4,
mental foramen; 5, temporomandibular joint; 5′, angular process of mandible; 6,
external acoustic meatus; 6′, tympanic bulla; 7, occipital condyle; 8, nuchal crest; 9,
sagittal crest; C, canine tooth; P4, upper fourth premolar.
Skull and Mandible (Horse)
A, Equine skull, and B, equine mandible. 1, Incisive bone; 2, nasoincisive notch; 3,
nasal bone; 4, infraorbital foramen; 4′, cheek teeth; 5, facial crest; 6, hamulus of
pterygoid bone; 7, zygomatic arch; 8, retroarticular process; 9, external acoustic
meatus; 10, paracondylar process; 11, occipital condyle; 12, horizontal part (body)
of mandible; 12′, mental foramen; 12″, vascular notch; 13, vertical part (ramus) of
mandible; 13′, coronoid process; 13″, mandibular foramen; I, incisors; C, canine
tooth (present only in the male).
Skull and Mandible (Cow)
Bovine skull with mandible. 1, Incisive bone; 2, mental foramen; 3, infraorbital foramen;
4, facial tuberosity; 5, nasal bone; 6, orbit; 7, frontal bone; 7′, horn surrounding cornual
process of frontal bone; 7″, temporal line; 8, temporal fossa; 9, zygomatic arch; 10,
external acoustic meatus; 10′, tympanic bulla; 11, paracondylar process; 12, occipital
condyle; I, incisors; C, canine tooth, incorporated in the row of incisors.
Superficial Muscles of the Equine
Head
Superficial muscles of the equine head. The cutaneous muscle has been removed. 1,
Orbicularis oris; 2, caninus; 3, depressor labii inferioris; 4, buccinator; 5, levator
nasolabialis; 6, levator labii superioris; 7, orbicularis oculi; 7′, levator anguli oculi medialis;
8, temporalis; 9, occipitomandibular part of digastricus; 10, masseter.
Ventral Neck and Thorax Muscles
(Dog)
Ventral muscles of the canine neck and thorax. 1, Combined sternohyoideus and
sternothyroideus; 2, sternocephalicus; 3, 3′, brachiocephalicus: cleidocervicalis,
cleidobrachialis; 4, manubrium of sternum; 5, pectoralis descendens; 6, pectoralis
transversus; 7, pectoralis profundus.