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Предисловие
Настоящее учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов
первого курса дневного отделения неязыковых вузов, обучающихся по
специальности «история». Пособие построено на основе компетентстного
подхода, целью которого является формирование речевой, языковой, учебнопознавательной компетенций, включающих в себя умение читать и
переводить тексты по исторической тематике со словарем, пользоваться
словарем с учетом неоднородности лексического состава научных текстов,
формирование
специального
и
пополнение
характера,
словарного
умение
запаса
составлять
общеязыкового
устные
и
и
письменные
высказывания на историческую тему на английском языке на основе
усвоенного лексического и грамматического материала.
Пособие состоит из 14 уроков. Каждый урок включает оригинальный
текст по истории Великобритании и разнообразные лексико-грамматические
задания к нему. Содержание уроков охватывает различные периоды
английской истории и дает широкие возможности для развития у студентов
социально-культурной компетенции, так как они не только приобретают
знания о стране, об общих тенденциях исторического развития английского
общества, знакомятся с оценками исторических событий, приводимых
английскими историками, но и развивают умения использовать свои знания,
обобщать и анализировать, выделять главное, увязывать события английской
истории с событиями отечественной истории и т.п., что является особо
важным для будущих преподавателей истории.
В пособии также предлагается ряд текстов для дополнительного чтения
и перевода.
Данное
пособие
рассчитано
на
один
учебный
год.
Возможно
использование пособия как базового для курса по выбору для студентов,
которые интересуются историей страны изучаемого языка.
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Unit 1
BRITAIN’S PREHISTORY
Read the words.
BC [b i f o: k r a i s t ], Britons [b r i t n s ],
Glacial [g l e i s j ә l ], Causewayed [ k o: z w e i d],
Burial mounds [ b e r i e l m a u n d ], Tomb [ t u: m ],
Society [ s ә s a i ә t i], Archaeological [a: k i ә l o d з i k ә l],
Rhinoceros [r a i n o s ә r ә s].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Men have lived in Britain for at least 250,000 years. No written records exist
to tell us the history of Man’s development during this long period of time. Our
knowledge of his life, first as a hunter and then as a farmer, of his increasing skills
in making tools and weapons from stone and later from bronze and iron, comes
from a careful study of remains dug from the earth. Early man must have been a
brave and skilled hunter, for during the glacial period there were animals such as
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros.
In the Mesolithic period man had to adapt post-glacial conditions, in which a
spread in forest and a big drop in the food supply occurred. The discovery of axes
from this time perhaps indicates his effort to make clearings. Some of the best
artifacts come from settlements on the coast of Scotland and Yorkshire.
Around 4,000 BC a new people joined the scanty Mesolithic population. The
newcomers, the Neolithic people sowed corn, kept animals and knew how to make
pottery. In the next 2,000 years much of southern Britain at least saw widespread
farming. Tools were more sophisticated, as they were made, for the first time, by
groups of specialists.
The most spectacular achievement of the Neolithic people was their
monumental architecture. They have left behind remains of their causewayed
camps, burial mounds known as barrows, chambered tombs and enormous ritual
centers called henges. Many of the first Neolithic monuments are found in
Wiltshire, in the south-west of Britain. At Silbury Hill there is the largest man2
made mound in Europe. One of the most mysterious and complex archaeological
sites in the world is Stonehenge dates from before 2,000 BC. It was certainly a sort
of capital centre of religious, political and economic power.
Neolithic society was transformed before 2,000 BC, by the arrival of a
vigorous people known as Beakers folk because of a characteristic drinking vessel,
a beaker, which was generally buried with their dead. The people knew how to
extract and work metal. They made copper at first and, later, bronze. During the
Bronze Age Britain possibly supported a large population.
However, from about 1300 BC onwards the henge civilization seems to have
become less important, and was overtaken by a new form of society in southern
England, that of a settled farming class. The new farmers grew wealthy because
they learned to enrich the soil with natural waste materials so that it did not
become poor and useless.
From this time, too, power seems to have shifted to the Thames valley and
southeast Britain. Hill-forts replaced henges as the centres of local power, and
most of these were found in the sou theast, suggesting that the land successfully
supported more people here than elsewhere.
There was another reason for the shift of power eastwards. A number of
better-designed bronze swords have been found in the Thames valley, suggesting
that the local people had more advanced metalworking skills. Many of these
swords have been found in river beds, almost certainly thrown in for religious
reasons. This custom may be the origin of the story of the legendary King Arthur’s
sword, which was given to him from out of the water and which was thrown back
into the water when he died.
1. Answer the questions.
1.
What have you learned about Early men lived in Britain?
2.
Where do the best artifacts come from?
3.
Who were the newcomers joined the scanty Mesolithic population?
4.
What was the most spectacular achievement of the Neolithic people?
5.
When did people of Britain learn to work metal?
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6.
When did the settled farming society start to form?
7.
What were the reasons for the shift of power eastwards?
2. Give English equivalents of the following phrases and words.
Инструменты, топор, гончарное дело, курганы, селения с мощеными
дорогами, сильный, энергичный, кубок, чаша, оружие, ограниченный,
недостаточный,
обработка
металла,
вырубка
(леса),
общество,
достопримечательность, поселение, меч, мастерство, искусство, могила,
остатки.
3. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
4. Insert suitable articles where necessary. Retell the text.
Stonehenge
Stonehenge was built on Salisbury Plain (southern England) some time
between 3050 and 2300 BC. It is one of … most famous and mysterious
archaeological sites in… world. One of its mysterious is how it was ever built at all
with the technology of the time. It is made of many upright stones, standing
in…groups of twos, 8,5 metres high. They are joined on… top by other flat stones,
each weighing about 7 tones. … stones come from over 200 miles away in Wales.
Another is its purpose. It appears to function as … kind of astronomical clock and
we know it was used by…Druids for ceremonies marking the passing of the
seasons. It always exerted… fascination on the British imagination, and appears
in… number of novels, such as Thomas Hardy’s Tess of D’Urbevilles.
These days …Stonehenge is not only of interest to tourists, but
also…gathering point for hippies and modern Druids to celebrate the Summer
Solstice on 21-st June, the day when…Sun is furthest north.
Unit 2
THE CELTS
Read the words.
Celts [k e l t s], Gaulish [g o: l i ∫], Etruscan [i t r  s k ә n],
Belgic [b e l dз i k], AD [æ n o u d o m i na i ],
Julius Caesar [dз u: l j e s s i: z ә]
4
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Around 700 BC, another group of people began to arrive to Britain. Many of
them were tall, and had fair or red hair and blue eyes. These were the Celts, who
probably came from central Europe or further east, from southern Russia, and had
moved slowly westwards in earlier centuries.
One great part of them settled in France and became an important element in
the racial content of the Gaulish nation. A southern wing settled in the valley of the
Po, put an end to the Etruscan hegemony in Italy, and about 387 BC sacked Rome.
Others pushed into Spain, others into the Balkans. During the same centuries a
northern wing of this great world movement overran Britain and imposed Celtic
rule and language on its inhabitants. The Celtic invaders of Britain came in
successive tribal waves, each with a dialect of its own. At least two big waves of
Celtic invasion can be distinguished: first the Gaels or Goidels, still found in
Ireland and Scotland; secondly the Cymri and Brythons still found in Wales.
Among the Brythonic peoples were the Belgea and other tribes. These Britons
seem to have been already settled in the island that is still called by their name, at
the time when a Greek traveller recorded his visit to the ‘Pretanic isle’ in the days
of Alexander of Macedon. They drove many of older inhabitants and began to
control all the lowlands areas of Britain. The Celts were technically advanced,
skilful in ironwork and in arts and crafts of their own, much admired by modern
archaeologists.
The Celts traded across tribal borders and trade was probably important for
political and social contact between the tribes. The two main trade outlets eastward
to Europe were the settlements along the Thames River in the south and on the
Firth of Forth( исток реки Forth) in the north. It is no accident that the present-day
capitals of England and Scotland stand on or near these two ancient trade centres.
Much trade, both inside and beyond Britain, was conducted by river and sea. For
money the Celts used iron bars, until they began to copy the Roman coins they saw
used in Gaul (France). The Celtic men wore shirts and breeches (knee-length
5
trousers), and striped or checked cloaks fastened by a pin. It is possible that
Scottish tartan and dress developed from this ‘striped cloak’.
The Celtic tribes were ruled over by a warrior class, of which the priests, or
Druids, seem to have been particularly important members. These Druids could not
read or write, but they memorized all the religious teachings, the tribal laws,
history, medicine and other knowledge necessary in Celtic society. The Druids
from different tribes all over Britain probably met once a year. They had no
temples, but they met in sacred groves of trees, on certain hills, by rivers or by
river sources. We know little of their kind of worship except that at times it
included human sacrifice.
The Celts are important in British history because they are the ancestors of
many of the people in Highland Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall today.
Celtic languages which have been continuously used in some areas since that time,
are still spoken.
1. Make up ten questions to the text.
2. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1. From the 7th century BC the Indian tribes were moving across Europe in one
direction.
2. The Goths settled in France and sacked Rome in 43 AD.
3. At least 5 big waves of Celtic invasion can be distinguished.
4. The Celts were highly successful farmers, skilful in ironwork and crafts.
5. The Druids had a lot of temples where they met to worship their gods.
6. The Celts, settled on the British Isles, were dark-haired, peaceful people.
3. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
4. Fill in the gaps with historical terms which are given in the brackets.
Of Celtic__ our knowledge is scarce. Local__ and __visited certain springs,
caves, and mountains. Julius Caesar wrote in detail about the old Celtic__. He was
impressed by the powerful caste of the__. Their power was distasteful to the
Roman__. According to Caesar the Celtic were ‘much given to__‘. Thus, persons
involved in danger made human__, and used the__ as their__ in these__. Unlike
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the Germans the Celts had__ to preside over their__. Thus, the__ of the Celts in
France and Britain was a __ of__ and__.
(ministers, religion, priesthood, superstition, patricians, fear, sacrifices,
goddesses, ceremonies, gods, Druids, paganism).
Unit 3
THE ROMANS
Read the words.
Romans [r o u m ә n s], Boudicca [b u: d i k ә],
Gloucester [g l o: s t ә], Hadrian [h e i d r i a n ],
Lancaster [l æ ŋ k ә s t ә], Borough [b r ә],
Claudious [k l o: d i ә s ], Plough [p l a u].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
The name ‘Britain’ comes from the word ‘Pretani’, the Greco-Roman word
for the inhabitants of Britain. The Romans mispronounced the word and called the
island ‘Britannia’.The Romans had invaded because the Celts of Britain were
working with the Celts of Gaul against them. The British Celts were giving them
food, and allowing them to hide in Britain. There was another reason. The Celts
used cattle to pull their ploughs and this meant that richer, heavier land could be
farmed. Under the Celts Britain had become an important food producer because of
its mild climate. It now exported corn and animals, as well as hunting dogs and
slaves, to the European mainland. The Romans could make use of British food for
their own army fighting the Gauls.
Julius Caesar first came to Britain in 55 BC, but it was not until almost a
century later, in AD 43, that a Roman army actually occupied Britain. The Romans
were determined to conquer the whole island. They had little difficulty because
they had a better trained army and because the Celtic tribes fought among
themselves.
The Romans established a Romano-British culture across the southern half of
Britain, from the River Humber to the River Severn. Beyond were the upland
areas, under Roman control but not developed. The Romans could not conquer
7
‘Caledonia’, as they called Scotland, although they spent over a century trying to
do so. At last they built a strong wall along the northern border, named after the
Emperor Hadrian who planned it. At the time, Hadrian’s wall was simply intended
to keep out raiders from the north. But it also marked the border between the two
later countries, England and Scotland.
The most obvious characteristic of Roman Britain was its towns, which were
the basis of Roman administration and civilization. The Romans left about 20 large
towns of about 5,000 inhabitants, and almost one hundred smaller ones. Many of
these towns were at first army camps, and the Latin word for camp, castra, has
remained part of many town names to this day (with the ending chester, caster, or
cester): Gloucester, Chester, Lancaster and many others. These towns were built
with stone as well as wood, and planned streets, markets and shops. Some
buildings had central heating. They were connected by roads which were so well
built that they survived when later roads broke up. These roads became the main
roads of modern Britain. Six of these Roman roads met in London, a capital city of
about 20,000 people. London was twice the size of Paris, and the most important
trading centre of northern Europe. Outside the towns, the biggest change during the
Roman occupation was the growth of the large farms, called ‘villas’. These
belonged to the richer Britons who were, like the townpeople, more Roman than
Celts in their manners. Each villa had many workers who still lived in the same
kind of round huts and villages which the Celts had been living in four hundred
years earlier, when the Romans arrived.
The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain. Town
dwellers spoke Latin and Greek with ease, and the richer landowners in the country
almost used Latin in speech and writing, while the Celtic peasantry remained
illiterate and only Celtic-speaking. Roman control of Britain came to an end as the
empire began to collapse. In AD 409 Rome pulled its last soldiers out of Britain.
1. Make up 10 questions to the text.
2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Simple Tense.
Translate the text.
8
In AD 43, The Roman Emperor Claudius (decide) to make Britain the part of
the Roman Empire. An army of 40000 Roman soldiers (swim) across the water in
their armour and (land) at Richborough in Kent. This time the Romans had come to
stay. The chief enemy of Rome, King Caratacus, (fight) the Romans in Wales, but
was captured and (send) to Rome as a slave.
The Romans army (sweep) the Britons aside and (march) deep into the
countryside. They (make) alliances with tribes and (conquer) others one by one.
The Romans (win) many victories. By AD 49 most of lowland England was
conquered by them.
Then, in AD 60, the Iceni tribe (lead) by their queen Boudicca, (revolt). They
(burn) the Roman cities including London. Boudicca (have) a huge army of
100,000 soldiers. The Roman Governor of Britain (march) with 2 legions to meet
the Iceni. A great battle (take) place. Most of the British (be) killed and Boudicca
herself (take) poison. The rebellion (be) over. After these events the Romans
(bring) a new order to Britain. It (become) part of the Roman Empire. Latin
became the main language for administration. Everyone had to obey Roman laws
and follow the Roman way of life. Britons became ‘Roman Britons’.
3. Make up a list of historical terms from the texts.
4. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1.
The Roman province of Britannia covered most of present day England and
Wales.
2.
The Romans encouraged Celtic aristocracy to adopt Roman dress and their
language.
3.
A lot of Roman villas, baths, temples, roads and cities remained till
nowadays.
4.
Hadrian’s wall marked the border between the two later countries – England
and Ireland.
5.
The Romans brought to Britain milestones, cabbages, cherries, roses and
gave the name of all months.
5. Complete the table
9
Date
Event
55 BC The Romans appeared on the British Isles
AD 43
-
-
-
AD 49
-
-
-
AD 60
-
-
-
1-st – 5th centuries
-
-
-
AD 407
-
-
-
Unit 4
THE SAXON INVASION
Read the words.
Angles [æ ŋ g l z], Arthur [a: θ ә], Mercia [m ә: ∫ j ә].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
The wealth of Britain by the 4-th century, the result of its mild climate and
centuries of peace, was a temptation to the greedy. At first the Germanic tribes
only raided Britain, but after AD 430 they began to settle. The newcomers were
warlike and illiterate. The invaders came from three powerful Germanic tribes –
the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. The Anglo-Saxon migrations gave the larger part of
Britain its new name, England, ‘the land of the Angles’. For about 150 years the
Britons fought the Anglo-Saxons, but by the year 600 the Britons had been forced
to flee to Wales, to the north or had become slaves.
The Anglo-Saxons established a number of kingdoms, the three largest, those
of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex, were the most powerful. The Saxons created
institutions which made the English state strong for the next 500 years. One of
them was the King’s Council, called the Witan. The Witan probably grew out of
informal groups of senior warriors and churchmen to whom kings like Offa of
Mercia (757-96) turned for advice or support on different matters. The Saxons
divided the land into new administrative areas, based on shires, or counties. Over
each shire was appointed a shire reeve, the king’s local administrator. In time his
name became shortened to ‘sheriff’. In each district was a ‘manor’ or a large
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house. This was a building where local villagers came to pay taxes, where justice
was administrated, and where men met together to join the Anglo-Saxon army, the
fyrd. The lord of the manor had to organize all this, and make sure village land was
properly shared. At first the lords, or aldermen, were simply local officials. But by
the beginning of the 11-th century they were warlords, and were often called earl.
The Anglo-Saxons had little use for towns and cities. But they had a great
effect on the countryside, where they introduced new farming methods and
founded the thousands of self-sufficient villages which formed the basis of English
society.
Anglo-Saxon technology changed the shape of English agriculture. A far
heavier plough was introduced which was useful for cultivating heavier soils. But
it required six or eight oxen to pull it, and it was difficult to turn. In order to make
the best use of village land, it was divided into 2 or 3 very large fields. These were
then divided again into long thin strips. Each family had a number of strips and
ploughing them was easier because it avoided the problem of turning. Few
individual families could afford to keep a team of oxen, and these had to be shared
on a cooperative basis.
The Anglo-Saxon kings preferred the Roman Church to the Celtic Church for
economic reasons. Many bishops and monks were invited by English rulers from
France and Germany.
Close contacts with many parts of Europe was encouraged. Anglo-Saxon
England became well known in Europe for its export of woollen goods, cheese,
pottery, and metal goods.
The strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today. Days of the week
were named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor
(Thursday), Frei (Friday). The ending –ing meant folk or family, thus ‘reading’ is
the place of the family of Rada. Ham means farm, ton means settlement.
Birmingham or Southampton, for example, are Saxon place-names.
1. Make up 10 questions to the text.
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases:
11
to invade, to settle, a raider, a temptation, to join the army, to form the basis
of, to force, to turn for support, to appoint, justice, to require, to make the best use
of, to share, to pay taxes, to afford, to make sure, sufficient, to grow out of,
warlike, to have little use for, to have an effect, to create institutions, to introduce
methods.
3. Make up sentences of your own with some of these words and phrases.
4. Fill in the gaps with the words which are given in the brackets.
The greatest figure in the … of Britain is the … King Arthur. According to
legend he lived in the late 5-th and early 6-th centuries at a time when the island
was a scene of a tremendous… struggle for domination between the Britons and
the invading Saxon… . Arthur is considered to have been a man at the … of the
Britons heroic defence of their homeland and heritage in the southwest and
possibly at a national… .
He was a truly Christian Warrior being raised in an area thought to be one of
the first to be introduced to Christianity, and he led a contingent of 28…, the
legendary Knights of the Round Table. One of these knights was…Lancelot [l a: n
s l ә t], whose love for Guinevere [g w i n i v i ә], the beautiful wife of King
Arthur is one of the best-known Arthurian fables. Since the time of the earliest… it
has been widely believed that the scene of the majority of the legends was Arthur’s
brilliant court in a great city situated somewhere in the … of the West, this city
was the famed Camelot [k æ m i l o t].
(chronicles, knights, level, famous, forefront, kingdom, folklore, fabulous,
bloody, tribes)
5. Write a short story of your own using the words:
great, fabulous, famous, brilliant, best-known, legendary, beautiful, famed,
tremendous, truly.
Unit 5
THE NORMAM CONQUEST
Read the words.
Hastings [h e i s t i ŋ z], Conqueror [k o ŋ k ә r ә],
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Confessor [ k ә n f e s ә], Duke [d j u: k],
Conquest [k o ŋ k w ә s t].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Edward the Confessor on his deathbed granted the kingdom to Harold, the
most powerful man in the kingdom. Harold was crowned king the next day. But
Harold’s right to the English throne was challenged by Duke William of
Normandy.
In that day of small feudal states, Normandy counted as a great European
power. William prepared the way for his invasion of England by propaganda and
diplomacy ably conducted in many countries. The French-speaking feudal world
was eager to fight under the great chief.
The army that landed at Pevensey was not a feudal levy. William had no
power under feudal law to call out his vassals to a campaign which must last longer
than forty days. But many of the barons and knights had voluntarily engaged
themselves to serve under his flag. William and his followers were building a fleet
of transports during the spring and summer of 1066, for it was essential to carry
across not only the armoured men but the trained war-horses.
William's army was not great. Its strength lay in its training and equipment
rather than its size. Modern historians reckon that the expedition did not exceed 12
000 men, of whom less than half were cavalry. It is certain that the number of
English knights did not exceed 5 000. Thus, that a country of a million and a half
people was subdued, robbed and permanently held down by so small a band, shows
the political and military backwardness of the English system.
There was also an element of luck by which William conquered at Hastings.
Harold, the king of England, determined to give William battle at once. Since
infantry fighting against cavalry must stand on the defensive, Harold resisted
William from a well-chosen position on the top of the hill six miles north-west of
Hastings. The hill, afterwards crowned by the village and Abbey of Battle, then
bore no dwelling and no name. The storming of that hill proved a day's task almost
13
beyond the power of the invaders, in spite of their great superiority in arms and
tactics.
The English, leaving their horses in the rear, still fought on foot. The
Normans fought from the saddle, casting with the spear and striking down with the
sword. But even the shocktactics of their splendid cavalry proved unable to destroy
the shield-wall on the top of the hill without the aid of another arm. The Normans
as warriors had not only learnt the new but remembered the old tactics Three times
they went up the hill and then pretended to run away. When the Anglo-Saxons
saw their enemies retreating, a large number of them came out from behind the
palisade to pursue the Normans and to complete, as they thought,the defeat of their
enemy. As soon as the Anglo-Saxons had descended to the plain and were a good
way from their palisade the Normans turned round and attacked them fiercely.
Their trick served its purpose. When night fell, Harold and his warriors around him
were lying dead on the hill-top.
William, known in popular history as ‘William the Conqueror’, marched to
London burning and destroying buildings and farmland as he went. On Christmas
Day 1066 he was crowned king of England and for the next 100 years England was
ruled by the Normans.
1. Answer the questions.
1. What was the place of Normandy in mediaeval Europe? How did William of
Normandy prepare the way for his invasion of England? Who wanted to fight
under the Duke of Normandy?
2. Who comprised William's army? For how many days could William of
Normandy call out his vassals to a campaign? How was William preparing for his
English operation? What did William intend to carry across the channel?
3. Was William's army great? Did William's army outnumber the English one?
What shows the political backwardness of England?
4. How did William manage to win a victory at Hastings? Where was his army
located? What position did Harold hold?
5. How did the English and the Normans fight?
14
6. What is said about the tactics of the Norman warriors?
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
to conduct propaganda; the feudal world; a feudal levy; to have power to do
smth; under feudal law; the armoured men; the trained war-horses; political and
military backwardness of the system; infantry fighting against cavalry; to stand on
the defensive; to resist from a well-chosen position; on the top of the hill; the great
superiority in arms and tactics; in the rear, to fight on foot; to fight from the saddle;
to cast with the spear; to strike down with the sword; to destroy the shield-wall.
3. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
в эпоху маленьких феодальных государств; подготовить вторжение;
высадить армию на берег; согласно феодальному закону; служить под
командованием кого-либо; перевозить вооруженных, облаченных в доспехи
воинов; сила армии заключалась в…; покорить и разграбить страну;
несмотря на превосходство в вооружении и тактике; сражаться верхом,
пешими; оставить коней в тылу; держать оборону; число воинов не
превышало…; феодальное ополчение.
4. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
5. Put English words instead of Russian in the text. Retell the text.
The Norman (завоевание) was small-scale. The Norman (солдаты) who had
been part of the invading (армия) were given the ownership of (земля) - and of the
people living on it. A strict (феодальный) system was imposed. Great nobles, or
barons, were (напрямую) responsible to the king; lesser lords, each owing a
(деревня), were responsible to a baron. Under them were (крестьяне), tied by a
strict system of (взаимные) duties and (обязанности) to the local lord, and
forbidden to travel without his(разрешение). The peasants were English-speaking
Saxons. The lords and the barons were the French-speaking (Норманны). This was
the (начало) of the English class system. The strong system of (управление)
which the Normans introduced meant that the Anglo-Norman (королевство) was
easily the most powerful political (сила) in the British Isles.
Unit 6
15
TWELFTH-CENTURY IDEALS
Read the words
Chivalry [∫ i v ә l r i], Chevalier[∫ i v ә l i ә],
Squire[s k w a i ә], Cuirass [k w i r æ s],
Campaign [k ә m p e i n]
Read the Text. Translate it in writing.
Chivalry-was an ideal. There can be no date for the "foundation" of Chivalry.
The word meant the spirit of a rider (chevalier) or knight. The training of a knight
began when he was seven, when the boy usually entered the service of a lord and
his lady as a page. His education would be in the hands of the women of the
household. At the age of fourteen the page would become a squire; he would now
be in constant attendance on his lord, tending his war-horses and his armour,
following him on his campaigns, and being trained in the use of lance and shield
and battle-axe. At the age of twenty-one the squire was considered worthy to be
"dubbed" a knight. The ceremony was long and solemn. He would spend a night in
fasting and prayer; in the morning, after being bathed and robed symbolically in
white, he would make his Communion and take the vows of Chivalry. He would
swear to hear the Mass every day, to give his life, if need be, in defence of the
Faith, to protect the oppressed and to honour women. The oath taken, he would be
invested with the arms of a knight, then, clad in coat of mail, cuirass, armlets,
gauntlets and spurs, he would receive an accolade (three taps of the sword on the
shoulder or a blow of the fist on the neck) which would make him a knight.
Usually after the ceremony a tournament was held. This was the great sport of
Chivalry. A clearing of level grass would be chosen at either end of which the
opposing knights would take their stand. After a blare of trumpets, heralds would
announce to the lord on his dais and to the assembly gathered round, the titles of
the combatants, who meanwhile would be closing their visors and fixing their
lady's favours - glove, scarf or trinket - in their helms. At a signal from the
trumpets the knights would charge down the lists with lances couched to meet with
terrific impact in the middle. The skilful knight would unhorse his vis-a-vis
16
without wounding him. More often, the lances of both sides would be splintered
and the knights canter back to their squires and begin the joust again.
Fighting, in tournament or in real war, was the whole occupation of a
medieval knight. Their fighting was governed by strict rules. The order of Chivalry
would have degenerated into a mere society of free-booters if the Crusades had not
come to give it a golden opportunity of realising its ideal.
1. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
2. Give all the meanings of the following historical terms.
Translate them:
squire, page, household, lance, shield, armour.
Tell what changes these historical terms underwent in the course of time. Put
down set expressions that accompany them.
3. Make up 10 questions to the text.
4. Fill in the gaps with historical terms.
The training of а (рыцарь) began when he was seven, when the boy usually
entered the service of a lord and his lady as a (паж). His education would be in the
hands of the women of the (двора). At the age of fourteen the (паж) would
become a (оруженосец) he would now be in constant (присутствовать) on his
(лорд), tending his (боевые кони) and his (доспехи) following him on his
(военные походы) and being trained in the use of (копье) and (щит) and
(алебарда). At the age of twenty-one the (оруженосец) was considered worthy to
be "dubbed" а (рыцарь).
6. Write an essay of your own. Use the historical terms which function in
the text.
Unit 7
UNIVERSITIES
Read the words
Scholastic [s k ә l æ s t i k], Cambridge ['k e i m b r i dз],
Oxford ['o k s f ә d], Paris ['p æ r i s], Cordova ['k o: d ә v ә],
Stephen ['s t i: v ә n], Bologna [b ә l ә u n j ә],
17
Bagdad ['b æ g d ә d], Vergil [v ә: g з i l],
Archbishop Theobald [a: t∫ b i ∫ ә p
θ i b ә l d];
Lombard ['l o m b ә d].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
In the reign of Henry III the English universities began to exercise a definite
influence on the intellectual life of Englishmen. Of the early history of Cambridge
little or nothing is known, but enough remains to enable us to trace the early steps
by which Oxford gained its intellectual glory. The foundation of the great schools
which were named Universities was everywhere throughout Europe a special mark
of the new impulse that Christendom had got from the Crusades. A new desire for
study sprang up in the West from its contact with the more cultured East.
Travellers brought back the first rudiments of physical and mathematical science
from the schools of Cordova or Bagdad. In the twelfth century a classical revival
restored Caesar and Vergil to list of monastic studies. The scholastic philosophy
sprang up in the schools of Paris. The Roman law was revived by the scholars of
Bologna. The long mental inactivity of feudal Europe broke up like ice before a
summer's sun. Wandering teachers crossed sea and land to spread the new power
of knowledge. The same spirit of restlessness, of inquiry, of impatience with the
older traditions of mankind, either local or intellectual, that had hurried half
Christendom to the tomb of its Lord, crowded the roads with thousands of young
scholars hurrying to the chosen Universities where teachers were gathered
together. Poor as they were, sometimes even of servile race, the wandering
scholars who lectured in every monastery were hailed as «masters». Many teachers
were foes worthy of the menaces of parliament, of the thunders of the Church. The
teaching of a single Lombard was of note enough in England to draw down the
prohibition of a king.
When Vacarius, probably, a guest in the court of Archbishop Theobald
opened lectures on the Civil Law at Oxford, he was silenced by the King, who was
then at war with the Church, and jealous of the power which the destruction of the
royal authority was throwing into Theobald's hands.
18
1. Answer the questions.
1. What is known of the early history of the first English universities?
2. What did the early European universities mark? How did the East influence the
West?
3. When were Caesar and Vergil restored to list of monastic studies? What did it
mean?
4. Where did scholastic philosophy appear? What did the schools of Bologna
revive?
5. What was the role of the teacher at mediaeval university? Why are mediaeval
students compared with crusading knights?
6. Why were the kings and parliaments afraid of wandering scholars? What did the
kings do to stop the spread of knowledge?
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
in the reign of; to exercise a definite influence on the intellectual life; to trace
the early steps; to gain intellectual glory; Christendom; the rudiments of physical
and mathematical science; a classical revival; list of monastic studies; the
scholastic philosophy; to spring up; the Roman law; wandering teachers; to spread
the power of knowledge; the spirit of restlessness, of inquiry, of impatience;
traditions of mankind; to hurry half Christendom to the tomb of its Lord; to crowd
the roads with thousands of young scholars; the menaces of parliament; the
thunders of the Church; the prohibition of a king; to be silenced by smb.
3. Give English equivalents of the following phrases:
странствующие ученые; основы физики и математики; продолжительная
интеллектуальная бездеятельность; христианский мир; оказать определенное
влияние на интеллектуальную жизнь кого-либо; римское право; запрет
короля; угрозы со стороны парламента; контакты с Востоком; феодальная
Европа; читать лекции; королевская власть.
4. Make up in writing sentences of your own with the given phrases.
5. Translate the text into English:
19
В Болонье на рубеже XI и XII вв. возникла школа юридических знаний,
превратившаяся в Болонский университет. Другой итальянский город
Салерно прославился как главный университетский центр медицинской
науки. Парижский университет был открыт в XII в. и завоевал признание как
главный центр богословия. Большинство средневековых университетов
возникло в XIII и XIV вв. в Англии, Франции, Испании, Португалии, Чехии,
Польше и Германии.
С самого своего возникновения университеты вели борьбу за
независимость. Борьба в защиту своих прав заставляла сплотиться всех
студентов и преподавателей. Возмущенные притеснениями студенты и
профессора в знак протеста покинули Болонью на 10 лет. Город сразу
утратил свою славу и доходы. Университет вернулся только тогда, когда
город признал его полную независимость. Это означало, что профессора,
студенты и служащие университета больше не подчинялись городским
властям, а повиновались выборному ректору университета и выборным
деканам факультетов. Средневековые университеты повсюду в Европе
завоевали свою независимость и оберегали ее.
6. Retell this story in English.
В Кембриджском университете (1284 г.) со времен Средневековья
существует должность, именуемая « портер» – это что-то среднее между
администратором и охранником. Портеры следят за порядком, люди они
уважаемые, строгие, студенты их побаиваются. Однажды в 1980-е годы один
из студентов нашел в своде законов Кембриджа статью, согласно которой
портер во время экзамена обязан по первому требованию студента принести
ему пинту пива – прямо в аудиторию и за счет университета! Законы в
Британии охраняются ревностно. Так вот, означенный умник во время
экзамена достал документ и потребовал свое пиво. Портеру пришлось
подчиниться. Однако сразу после экзамена студента вызвали к ректору и
предъявили квитанцию о штрафе в 50 фунтов. «За что?» - возопил юный
20
правовед. «А за то, друг мой, что вы явились на экзамен без меча!» - ректор
указал на свод законов, где прописано было и такое правило.
Unit 8
MEDIAEVAL ENGLAND AND ITS EXTERNAL POLICY
Read the words
Mediaeval [ m e d i i: ә v ә l], Tudor [t j u: d ә],
Angevin [æ n dз i v i n], Crown [k r a u n ],
Squabble [s k w o b l], Reign [r e i n].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
England of the later Middle Ages, the most highly organized of the largest
states of Europe, lay alongside of Wales and Ireland, each a collection of Celtic
tribes, and bordered on Scotland, a poor and thinly inhabited Kingdom, racially
divided between Celt and Saxon, but already becoming Anglo-Norman in language
and institutions. In such circumstances it was inevitable that attempts should be
made to round off the island empire on the basis of conquest by England. The
Romans in Britain had been faced by precisely the same geographic problem. Their
good genius prompted them to leave Ireland alone. They tried repeatedly and
vainly to conquer Scotland; but they quickly subdued Wales by their system of
military forts and roads. Mediaeval England had much the same measure of
success as Roman Britain. More slowly indeed than the legions, English feudal
chivalry with its network of castles made a military conquest of Wales, but the full
adjustment of Welsh to Saxon civilization was left over till Tudor times. The
attempt to subdue Scotland was a complete failure. Till the loss of Normandy in
John's reign, the energies of the Norman and Angevin Kings of England had been
occupied in the recovery of provinces in France. During the century that followed
the final loss of Normandy and preceded the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War
there was only one great King, Edward I. In his reign the power of mediaeval
England in Wales, Ireland and Scotland reached its high-water mark. But after his
death English rule in all Scotland and in nearly all Ireland was destroyed. It was
weakened even in Wales.
21
1. Answer the questions.
1. What was England like in the Middle Ages? Who inhabited it?
2. What problem did the Romans face in Britain?
3. How long did it take Englishmen to conquer Ireland and Scotland?
4. What was the aim of the English kings after John's loss of Normandy?
5. How did English feudal chivalry conquer Wales?
6. How is Edward I characterised? When did he reign? What happened after
Edward Fs death?
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
the later Middle Ages; a highly organized state; to lie alongside of smth; to
border on; a thinly inhabited Kingdom; to make attempts; to round off the island
empire; on the basis of; to try repeatedly and vainly to conquer; to subdue Wales; a
system of military forts and roads; English feudal chivalry; a network of castles; to
make a military conquest; the recovery of provinces in France; the outbreak of the
Hundred Years' War.
3. Make up questions of your own to the text.
4. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
5. Put English words instead of Russian in the text. Translate the
passage:
The (король) and his court, with the (королевская семья) and (двор) at the
centre, were the main (опора) of English (правительство) and politics. Central to
both was (отношение) between the (король) and his (влиятельные подданные):
the (крупные землевладельцы) (прежде всего), but also country (средние и
мелкие землевладельцы), (богатые купцы), and the (епископы) and talented
(чиновники) - all of whom (искать покровительство), position, and
(продвижение по службе) from the (корона). A successful king was one who
(установить) a harmonious relationship with all or most of these influential
(подданные), (поскольку только тогда) could (политическая стабильность ),
effective government, and (мир в стране) be assured. This was no (простая или
легкая задача). The growing emphasis on the king's (абсолютная власть) in his
22
(королевство) was reinforced by the principle from 1216, that the (корона) should
(перейти к) the (старшему сыну) of the dead (монарх). Yet the principle of
(наследственная монархия), while it reduced the (вероятность) of (королевская
родня) squabbling over the Crown, made it more (вероятно) that (недостойные)
kings would sometimes wear it.
Unit 9
ENGLAND IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
Read the words
Richard [r i t∫ ә d], Cicily Neville [s i s i l i n e v i l],
Monarch [m o n ә k], Oath [o u θ], Anjou [æ n j o u].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Richard was born on October 2, 1452, at Fotheringhay Castle. He was the
twelfth of thirteen children born to Richard, Duke of York, and his wife, Cicely
Neville, and the youngest of the seven who survived infancy. In this family of
large, fair, healthy children the dark, undersized, sickly Richard must have seemed
like a changeling. During the seven years he lived at Fotheringhay Richard had the
company only of his brother George, who was three years his senior, and his sister
Margaret, who was six years older than he. Richard grew up in unstable and
dangerous period in English history.
The old feudal system of loyalty based on land tenure was crumbling and a
new power, based on the system of «livery and maintenance» was taking its place.
In return for the «good-lordship» of a powerful magnate, a retainer promised his
services in peace and war. Thus, the lord had armed men when he needed them and
the retainer received protection against his enemies, wages in some cases, and, all
too frequently, immunity from punishment by law. It was common practice during
the fifteenth century for powerful lords to threaten or bribe juries to find lawsuits
in their favour. It was the duty of the monarch to see that justice was done, but
during the reign of Henry VI this oath had little meaning. Henry had frequent
periods of madness and the court was dominated by his beautiful and high-spirited
wife, Margaret of Anjou. She protected her partisans and persecuted those whom
23
she believed to be against her. She treated Richard's father, the Duke of York, as
her chief enemy and so turned him into one.
1. Answer the questions.
1. Where was Richard born? Where did he spend his childhood? Did he look like
his brothers and sisters?
2. What was replacing the old feudal system of loyalty?
3. What did the system of «livery and maintenance» mean?
4. What was common practice during the fifteenth century for powerful lords?
5. Did Henry VI fulfil his royal duty?
6. How did Queen Margaret of Anjou treat her friends and enemies? How did she
treat Richard Duke of York?
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
to be a changeling; the old feudal system of loyalty; land tenure; «livery and
maintenance»; the «good-lordship» of a powerful magnate; a retainer; armed men;
to receive protection against one's enemies; immunity from punishment by law; to
threaten or bribe juries; the duty of the monarch; to do justice.
3. Make up a list of historical terms from the text.
4. Insert the prepositions. Retell the text.
During the 15th century the throne… England was claimed… representatives
of 2 rival groups. The power… the greatest nobles, who had their own private
armies meant that constant challenges to the position… the monarch were possible.
The Lancastrians, whose symbol was a red rose, supported the descendants of the
Duke of Lancaster, and the Yorkists, whose symbol was a white rose, supported
the descendants of the Duke of York. The struggle…power led… the’ Wars of the
Roses’ between 1455 and 1485. They ended when Henry VII defeated and killed
Richard III…the Battle of Bosworth Field and were followed… an era of stability
and strong government which was welcomed by those weakened and
impoverished…decades of war.
5. Write a short essay «Dinastic conflicts».
Unit 10
24
ENGLISH EXPANSION
Read the words.
Christianity [k r i s t i æ n ә t i], Catholics [k æ θ ә l i k s],
Authentic [o: θ e n t i k], Vernacular[v ә n æ k j u l ә],
Liturgy[l i t ә: dз i], Boleyn [b ә l i n].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
England's internal condition delayed its entrance into the competition for
empire. England was torn apart by the Wars of the Roses. In 1485 a new dynasty
under Henry Tudor restored order and made the monarch master of England. By
the time of Henry VIII the Tudors had stabilized their rule. Eager to continue the
dynasty, Henry VIII sought a male heir whose succession would not stir
opposition. The king hoped that a new wife would produce a male heir but the
pope refused to grant him a divorce. He rejected Rome as the authentic voice of
Christianity. The English Reformation gave the crown influence of the Roman
Church. By confiscating the monasteries and granting their lands to supporters, the
Tudors encouraged the rise of wealthy new families. English political and
economic systems underwent change. Most Englishmen lived on the land and
laboured to satisfy their own wants. But now production for markets became very
important. Population enlarged from three to four million inhabitants. This growth
depended on wealth which came from more efficient methods of agriculture. The
landowners found it profitable to consolidate the lands of poorer grain farmers. On
the enclosed, larger holdings they raised sheep and marketed their wool abroad
where it was manufactured into cloth. The enclosure movement increased in tempo
in the sixteenth century, pushing farmers off their lands without providing them
alternative employment. As a result, «sturdy beggars» roamed the English
countryside. Unemployment led some to believe that England was overpopulated
and could employ surplus labour in overseas colonies.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
internal condition; the competition for empire; to be torn apart by the war; a
new dynasty; to restore order; a male heir; to stir opposition; the English
25
Reformation; to encourage the rise of new families; to undergo changes;
production for markets; efficient methods of agriculture; the enclosed holdings; the
enclosure movement; «sturdy beggars»; to roam the English countryside; surplus
labour; overseas colonies.
2. Make up ten questions to the text.
3. In the following passage the punctuation and capital letters have been
removed. Put them back. Start a new paragraph when it is necessary:
in the last years of his reign foreign policy became complicated by the
religious changes as long as france and Spain were at war henry was safe when
both were at peace england was open to attack from either france or spain in the
interests of papacy henry found his council divided in the final years between
conservative catholics and the new protestant interest surrounding thomas cranmer
the archbishop of canterbury henry strove for a compromise saving cranmer from
charges of heresy on three occasions between 1543 and 1545 henry promoted the
new vernacular liturgy and the english bible known as the king's book henry was in
complete control of the church but he wished to act prudently and preserve
religious unity throughout the realm
4. Put the verbs given in brackets into the correct tenses:
Henry VIII (1491-1547) (to be) the most famous English king (1509-1547).
The most well-known fact about Henry VIII (to be) that he (to have) six wives. His
first wife, Catherine of Aragon, (to fail) to bear him a son, but the Pope (to do) not
allow him to divorce her. As a result, the Church of England (to break) away from
the Roman Catholic Church and Henry (to marry) Anne Boleyn. She was later
found guilty of adultery and Henry (to have) her head cut off. His other wives (to
be) Jane Seymour, who (to die) while giving birth to a child, Anne of Cleves,
whom Henry (to divorce), Catherine Howard, who (to be) executed, Catherine
Parr, who (to live) on after Henry's death. Henry (to encourage) learning and (to
allow) the Bible (to be) printed in English. Under Henry England (to become)
richer and more powerful.
Unit 11
26
A NEW SOCIETY
Read the words.
Elizabeth [i l i z ә b ә θ], Fraught [f r o: t],
Vanquish [v æ ŋ k w i ∫], Cohesive [k o u h i: s i v],
Armada [a: m a: d ә], Incas [i ŋ k ә s], Aztecs [æ z t ә k s].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Elizabeth I was twenty-six when she came to the throne, a tall young woman
of commanding presence with auburn hair and piercing grey-black eyes. She was
to reign longer than any other Tudor, forty-five years in all. That lay in the future.
In 1558 what the people saw was an inexperienced unmarried woman assume
control of the vanquished fortune of England. Elizabeth's childhood had been
fraught with danger when she had been suspected of involvement in plots. All of
this made her cautious and evasive. The new queen always left room to manoeuvre
herself out of tightest political corner. But her judgement was sound, supremely so
in the case of people. Her selection of officials could rarely be faulted and, as a
consequence, there gradually emerged a cohesive group of educated and highly
intelligent officials who gave the kingdom a sustained stability. Most of them were
chosen from the ramifications of her mother's family or that of her principle
minister, William Cecil. On her accession Elizabeth appointed him her Principle
Secretary and over a decade later he became Lord Treasurer. The history of her
reign is the story of this alliance. It was a great partnership which lasted forty years
and whose main purpose was no longer revolution but consolidation, to bring
peace to the country by building on the foundations laid by Elizabeth's father in the
1530s. There was no doubt that England would revert to being Protestant. Initially
she had hoped to embark on religious changes piecemeal but after peace was made
with France in the spring of 1559, the government was able to proceed with a
religious settlement.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
a woman of commanding presence; to assume control; the vanquished fortune
of England; to be fraught with danger; involvement in plots; the judgement was
27
sound; as a consequence; a cohesive group of officials; principle minister; Lord
Treasurer; a great partnership; to bring peace to the country; to embark on religious
changes; to make peace; a religious settlement.
2. Make up ten questions to the text.
3. Match the words from the text with their definitions:
1. throne
a. part of a network
2. vanquish
b. to start (smth new or difficult)
3. plot
c. a condition in which there is no war
4. ramification
d. the ceremonial chair of a king, queen
5. peace
e. defeat completely
6. embark on
f. a secret plan to do smth against a person
4. In the following passage the punctuation and capital letters have been
removed. Put them back. Start a new paragraph when you think it necessary:
before the reformation culture had been centred primarily in the church as
both a patron of arts and learning in the new post-reformation society the focus
was to shift to the court the aristocracy and above all london although latin
remained a language essential for any educated person to know this was the age
when english asserted itself as never before there was no such thing as standard
english the language remained fluid and regional but Sunday by Sunday english
now resounded in the parish churches instead of latin and the printing press fed a
far more widely literate public with a flood of reading matter from practical
manuals to sermons from political tracts to poetry.
5. Fill the gaps with the words which are given in the brackets.
In 1492, Columbus… America for the King of Spain. The Spanish conquered
the Aztecs and the Incas who lived there, and took their… and wealth. Spanish
treasure fleets, loaded with… and silver, sailed across the Atlantic to land their
cargoes in Spain. Spain became the richest country in Europe.
Encouraged by Elizabeth, who wanted a share of the loot, English captains,
nicknamed ‘sea dogs’, began to… the slow Spanish galleons and steal the treasure
they carried. The English ships were smaller but faster then the clumsy Spanish… .
28
Sir Francis Drake became the first English sea captain to sail round the world. He
attacked Spanish ports in America and… over 1,500,000 pounds of gold. To the
Spanish king, Philip II, the sea dogs were little better than ... To the English, they
were heroes.
King Philip grew more and more… with Elizabeth. He decided to take action
and sent a great fleet, or armada, of 130 ships carrying 30,000 soldiers and sailors
to... England.
In spite of English attacks in the Channel, the Spanish… reached Calais
safely. The English sent fireships into the Spanish Fleet and it scattered in panic.
A great storm blew up, driving the Spanish ships northwards. Many were wrecked
and less than half of the Spanish managed to limb to Spain. The Armada had
failed.
(gold, discovered, attack, angry, stove, land, galleons, pirates, invade, fleet).
6. Write an essay «A new trading empire»/
Unit 12
OLIVER CROMWELL
Read the words.
Oliver [o l i v ә], Commonwealth [k o m ә n w e l θ],
European[j u ә r ә p i: ә n], Sovereign [s o v r i n],
Unique [j u: n I k], Condemn [k ә n d e m],
Appreciate [ә p r i: ∫ i e i t], Heir [ε ә]
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
Oliver Cromwell, an English soldier and statesman of outstanding gifts and a
forceful character was Lord Protector of the republican Commonwealth of
England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1653 to 1658. It is still difficult to appreciate
the unique character of Cromwell's career, and the impact it made on its
contemporaries. No private person until then had taken power to rule a great
European kingdom, no subject had taken it up himself to sit in the judgement on
his lawful sovereign, condemn with the formality of a lawful process, and publicly
execute him as a criminal. In a country governed by custom, precedent, and
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common law, Cromwell completely changed the ancient frame of government,
reforming Parliament and imposing written constitution. By conquest he
incorporated the separate kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland into a single
commonwealth with England. He remained the only British statesman whose entire
career depended on the control and use of military power. Yet his achievement
proved to be totally ephemeral. He left no political heir or legacy. Two centuries
were to elapse before his reputation recovered. One of the leading generals on the
parliamentary side in the English Civil War against King Charles I, Oliver
Cromwell helped to bring about the overthrow of the Stuart monarchy, and, as
Lord Protector, he raised his country's status once more to that of a leading
European power from the decline it had gone through since the death of Queen
Elizabeth I. Cromwell was one of the most remarkable rulers in modern European
history; for although a convinced Calvinist, he believed in the value of religious
toleration.
1. Answer the questions.
1. What post did Oliver Cromwell hold from 1653 to 1658?
2. Why is it difficult to appreciate the unique character of Cromwell's career?
3. What did Oliver Cromwell do?
4. What did Oliver Cromwell's career depend on?
5. What legacy did Oliver Cromwell leave?
6. What did Oliver Cromwell believe in?
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following phrases:
the republican Commonwealth; a private person; to sit in the judgement; a
lawful process; common law; the ancient frame of government; to impose written
constitution; political heir or legacy; two centuries elapsed; on the parliamentary
side; the overthrow of the monarchy; Lord Protector; a leading European power;
one of the most remarkable rulers; religious toleration.
3. Make up sentences of your own with some of the phrases above.
4. Insert the missing prepositions. Translate the passage into Russian:
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_eleven years, _ 1629 _ 640, England had been governed _ a parliament;
now__ another eleven years, _
1649 __ 1660, it was to be governed__ a
monarchy. Soon__ the execution __ King Charles I the monarchy and the House__
Lords were abolished and England was named «a Commonwealth or Free State».
A Council of State, composed__forty-one members who had to be elected every
year, was appointed to carry __ executive and administrative duties, working __
means__ a number__ committees. Law-making remained__ the Rump Parliament,
that had been so often «purged» that only ninety members now remained. Thus the
new government was that__ a select few or oligarchy. _ the new Great Seal these
words were inscribed: «_the first year _ freedom _ God's blessing restored». The
realities _ power rested _ the great men__ the Army and a group __ their civilian
friends.
5. Summarize the main idea of the text.
Unit 13
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Read the words.
Napoleon [n ә p ә u l i ә n], Horatio [h o r e i ∫ i o u],
Egypt [i: dз i p t], Trafalgar [t r ә f æ l g ә],
Belgium [b ә l dз ә m], Portugal [p o: t j u g ә l],
Waterloo [w o: t ә l u:], Yeomen [j o u m ә n]
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
The French Revolution had created fear all over Europe. The British
government was so afraid that revolution would spread to Britain that it imprisoned
radical leaders. It was particularly frightened that the army would be influenced by
these dangerous ideas. Until then, soldiers had always lived in inns and private
homes. Now the government built army camps, where soldiers could live separated
from the ordinary people. The government also brought together yeomen and
gentry who supported the ruling establishment and trained them as soldiers. The
government claimed that these "yeomanry" forces were created in case of a French
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attack. This may have been true, but they were probably useless against an enemy
army, and they were used to prevent revolution by the poor and discontented.
As an island, Britain was in less danger, and as a result was slower than other
European states to make war on the French Republic. But in 1793 Britain went to
war after France had invaded the Low Countries (today, Belgium and Holland).
One by one the European countries were defeated by Napoleon, and forced to ally
themselves with him. Most of Europe fell under Napoleon's control.
Britain decided to fight France at sea because it had a stronger navy, and
because its own survival depended on control of its trade routes. British policy was
to damage French trade by preventing French ships, including their navy, from
moving freely in and out of French seaports. The commander of the British fleet,
Admiral Horatio Nelson, won brilliant victories over the French navy, near the
coast of Egypt, at Copenhagen, and finally near Spain, at Trafalgar in 1805, where
he destroyed the French-Spanish fleet. Nelson was himself killed at Trafalgar, but
became one of Britain's greatest national heroes. His words to the fleet before the
battle of Trafalgar, "England expects that every man will do his duty," have
remained a reminder of patriotic duty in time of national danger.
In the same year as Trafalgar, in 1805, a British army landed in Portugal to
fight the French. This army, with its Portuguese and Spanish allies, was eventually
commanded by Wellington, a man who had fought in India. But fighting the
French on land was an entirely different matter. Almost everyone in Europe
believed the French army, and its generals, to be the best in the world. Wellington
was one of the very few generals who did not. "I am not afraid of them," he wrote
on his appointment as commander. "I suspect that all the Continental armies were
more than half beaten before the battle was begun. I, at least, will not be frightened
beforehand." Like Nelson he quickly proved to be a great commander. After
several victories against the French in Spain he invaded France. Napoleon,
weakened by his disastrous invasion of Russia, surrendered in 1814. But the
following year he escaped and quickly assembled an army in France. Wellington,
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with the timely help of the Prussian army, finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in
Belgium in June 1815.
1. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases:
To spread, the ruling establishment, to create fear, in case of, to make war, to
fall under control, to prevent, navy, disastrous invasion, to surrender, to assemble.
2. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases:
Оказывать влияние; заявлять, нарушать; разбивать флот; союзники; быть
ослабленным; исчезать; спасаться; быть напуганным; быть недовольным;
опасность; уцелеть; в конечном счете.
3. Make up ten questions to the text.
4. Insert the articles where necessary. Retell the text.
At Waterloo…British formed into squares and fired rapid volleys in French
cavalry. The Duke of Wellington on his famous horse…Copenhagen always
seemed to be in the thick of fighting. Not even Napoleon’s famous Imperial Guard
could break the British ranks. After his defeat at…Waterloo, Napoleon surrendered
to the British. He was sent to…remote island of …St.Helena in…South Atlantic
where he died.
After his victory…Duke of Willington was greeted in …Britain as…national
hero and later became…Prime Minister.
5. Write an essay about one of the great Russian national heroes of 1812
Patriotic War.
Unit 14
QUEEN AND EMPIRE
Read the words.
Empire [e m p a i ә], Sindh [s i n d], Sikhs [s i k s],
Punjab [p  n dз a: b], Crimea [k r a i m i ә],
Boers [b ә u ә s], Suez [s u: i z], Australia [o s t r e i l j ә],
Zealand [z i: l ә n d], Maori [m a u r i].
Read the text. Translate it in writing.
33
Queen Victoria came to the throne as a young woman in 1837 and reigned
until her death in 1901. She did not like the way in which power seemed to be
slipping so quickly away from the monarchy, but was unable to prevent it. But
Victoria succeeded in showing a more public interest in the business of the
kingdom, and that the monarchy was a connection with a glorious history. She did
so, and soon she became extraordinary popular, and monarchy was better loved
among the British than it had ever been before.
Britain's empire had first been built on trade and the need to defend this
against rival European countries. After the loss of the American colonies in 1783,
the idea of creating new colonies remained unpopular until the 1830s. Instead,
Britain watched the oceans carefully to make sure its trade routes were safe, and
fought wars in order to protect its "areas of interest". In 1839 it attacked China and
forced it to allow the profitable British trade in opium from India to China. The
"Opium Wars" were one of the more shameful events in British colonial history.
After about 1850 Britain was driven more by fear of growing European
competition than by commercial need. This led to the taking of land, the creation
of colonies, and to colonial wars that were extremely expensive. Fear that Russia
would advance southwards towards India resulted in a disastrous war in
Afghanistan (1839-42), in which one army was completely destroyed by Afghan
forces in the mountains. Soon after, Britain was fighting a war in Sindh, a part of
modern Pakistan, then another against Sikhs in the Punjab, in northwest India.
The Russian danger also affected south Europe and the Middle East. Britain
feared that Russia would destroy the weak Ottoman Empire, which controlled
Turkey and the Arab countries. This would change the balance of power in Europe,
and be a danger to Britain's sea and land routes to India. When Russia and Ottoman
Turkey went to war Britain joined the Turks against Russia in Crimea in 1854, in
order to stop Russian expansion into Asiatic Turkey in the Black Sea area.
It was the first, and last, time that newspapers were able to report freely on a
British war without army control. They told some unwelcome truths; for example,
they wrote about the courage of the ordinary soldiers, and the poor quality of their
34
officers. They also reported the shocking conditions in army hospitals, and the
remarkable work of the nurse Florence Nightingale.
In India, the unwise treatment of Indian soldiers in British pay resulted in
revolt in 1857. Known in Britain as the "Indian Mutiny", this revolt quickly
became a national movement against foreign rule, led by a number of Hindu and
Muslim princes. Many of these had recently lost power and land to the British
rulers. If they had been better organized, they would have been able to throw the
British out of India. Both British and Indians behaved with great violence, and the
British cruelly punished the defeated rebels. The friendship between the British
and the Indians never fully recovered. A feeling of distrust and distance between
ruler and ruled grew into the Indian independence movement of the twentieth
century.
In Africa, Britain’s first interest had been the slave trade on the west coast. It
then took over the Cape of Good Hope at the southern point, because it needed a
port there to service the sea route to India.
Britain's interest in Africa was increased by reports sent back by European
travellers and explorers. The most famous of these was David Livingstone, who
was a Scottish doctor, a Christian missionary and an explorer.
At the same time in South Africa the Dutch settles, the Boers, fought two
wars against the British. The Boers were defeated only with great difficulty.
The real problem of British imperial ambition, however, were most obvious in
Egypt. Britain, anxious about the safety of the route to India through the newly dug
Suez Canal. In 1882 Britain invaded Egypt ‘to protect international shipping’ and
did not leave until forced to do so in 1954.
There was another reason for the interest in creating colonies. From the 1830s
there had been growing concern at the rapidly increasing population of Britain. As
a result, there was marked increase in settlement in Canada, Australia and New
Zealand from 1840s onwards. The settlers arrived to take over the land and to farm
it. In Canada most of earlier populations were pushed westward. In Australia
35
British settlers killed most of the aboriginal inhabitants, leaving only a few in the
central desert areas. In New Zealand the Maori lost most of their land too.
The white colonies, unlike the other, were soon allowed to govern themselves,
and no longer depended on Britain. They still however, accepted the British
monarch as their head of state. The move towards self-government was the result
of trouble in Canada in 1837, which might follow the other American colonies into
independence. It prepared the way from empire to a British ‘Commonwealth of
Nations’ in the twentieth century.
By the end of 19th century Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land
areas of the world. Moreover most British strongly believed in their right to an
empire, and were willing to defend it against the least threat.
1. Make up ten questions to the text.
2. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases:
To like the way; to make sure; the idea of creating; areas of interest; to
advance; to affect, to deal with; remarkable work; unwelcome truth; to throw out;
to recover; to anxious about; self-government; to demand freedom.
3. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases:
Позорные события; невероятно дорогостоящий; баланс сил; остановить
эксплуатацию; шокирующие условия; жестоко наказывать; с большим
трудом; имперские амбиции; решение проблем; тяжелый груз; противоречие.
4. Make up 5 sentences of your own with these words and phrases.
5. Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1.
During the reign of Queen Victoria the monarchy became unpopular among
the British.
2.
At the end of the 18th century Britain watched the American colonies
instead of creating new trade routes.
3.
Britain feared that Russia would destroy the balance of power in Europe.
4.
The British newspapers were excited by the courage of the British soldiers
and officers during Crimean War.
36
5.
The first Britain’s interest in Africa was to discover areas of Africa unknown
to Europeans.
6.
Britain found that every area conquered created new danger which had to be
controlled.
7.
From the 1840s the British started to leave colonies as they could not take
over the lands and to farm them.
8.
The principle of self-government of colonies prepared the way from empire
to a British ‘Commonwealth of Nations’ in the 20th century.
6. Summarize the main idea of the text in a short paragraph.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING.
The Vikings
Towards the end of the eighth century new raiders were tempted by Britain's
wealth. These were the Vikings, a word which probably means either "pirates" or
"the people of the sea inlets", and they came from Norway and Denmark. Like the
Anglo-Saxons they only raided at first. They burnt churches and monasteries along
the east, north and west coasts of Britain and Ireland. London was itself raided in
842.
In 865 the Vikings invaded Britain once it was clear that the quarrelling
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms could not keep them out. This time they came to conquer
and to settle. The Vikings quickly accepted Christianity and did not disturb the
local population. By 875 only King Alfred in the west of Wessex held out against
the Vikings, who had already taken most of England. After some serious defeats
Alfred won a decisive battle in 878, and eight years later he captured London. He
was strong enough to make a treaty with the Vikings.
Viking rule was recognized in the east and north of England. It was called the
Danelaw, the land where the law of the Danes ruled. In the rest of the country
Alfred was recognized as king. During his struggle against the Danes, he had built
walled settlements to keep them out. These were called burghs. They became
prosperous market towns, and the word, now usually spelt borough, is one of the
37
commonest endings to place names, as well as the name of the unit of municipal or
town administration today.
Magna Carta and the decline of feudalism
King John set his seal to the Charter on June 15th, 1215.
This new agreement was known as "Magna Carta", the Great Charter, and
was an important symbol of political freedom. The king promised all "freemen"
protection from his officers, and the right to a fair and legal trial. At the time
perhaps less than one quarter of the English were "freemen". Most were not free,
and were serfs or little better. Hundreds of years later, Magna Carta was used by
Parliament to protect itself from a powerful king. In fact Magna Carta gave no real
freedom to the majority of people in England. The nobles who wrote it and forced
King John to sign it had no such thing in mind. They had one main aim: to make
sure John did not go beyond his rights as feudal lord.
Magna Carta marks a clear stage in the collapse of English feudalism. Feudal
society was based on links between lord and vassal. At Runnymede the nobles
were not acting as vassals but as a class. They established a committee of twentyfour lords to make sure John kept his promises. That was not a "feudal" thing to
do. In addition, the nobles were acting in co-operation with the merchant class of
towns.
The nobles did not allow John's successors to forget this charter and its
promises. Every king recognized Magna Carta, until the Middle Ages ended in
disorder and a new kind of monarchy came into being in the sixteenth century.
There were other small signs that feudalism was changing. When the king
went to war he had the right to forty days' fighting service from each of his lords.
But forty days were not long enough for fighting a war in France. The nobles
refused to fight for longer, so the king was forced to pay soldiers to fight for him.
(They were called "paid fighters", solidarius, a Latin word from which the word
"soldier" comes.) At the same time many lords preferred their vassals to pay them
in money rather than in services. Vassals were gradually beginning to change into
38
tenants. Feudalism, the use of land in return for service, was beginning to weaken.
But it took another three hundred years before it disappeared completely.
The beginnings of Parliament
Part I
King John had signed Magna Carta unwillingly, and it quickly became clear
that he was not going to keep to the agreement. The nobles rebelled and soon
pushed John out of the southeast. But civil war was avoided because John died
suddenly in 1216.
John's son, Henry III, was only nine years old. During the first sixteen years
as king he was under the control of powerful nobles, and tied by Magna Carta.
Henry was finally able to rule for himself at the age of twenty-five. It was
understandable that he wanted to be completely independent of the people who had
controlled his life for so long. He spent his time with foreign friends, and became
involved in expensive wars supporting the pope in Sicily and also in France.
Henry's heavy spending and his foreign advisers upset the nobles. Once again
they acted as a class, under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester.
In 1258 they took over the government and elected a council of nobles. De
Montfort called it a parliament, or parlement, a French word meaning a "discussion
meeting". This "parliament" took control of the treasury and forced Henry to get
rid of his foreign advisers. The nobles were supported by the towns, which wished
to be free of Henri's heavy taxes.
But some of the nobles did not support the revolutionary new council, and
remained loyal to Henry. With their help Henry was finally able to defeat and kill
Simon de Montfort in 1265. Once again he had full royal authority, although he
was careful to accept the balance which de Montfort had created between king and
nobles. When Henry died in 1272 his son Edward I took the throne without
question.
Part II
Edward I brought together the first real parliament. Simon de Montfort's
council had been called a parliament, but it included only nobles. It had been able
39
to make statutes, or written laws, and it had been able to make political decisions.
However, the lords were less able to provide the king with money, except what
they had agreed to pay him for the lands they held under feudal arrangement. In the
days of Henry I (1100-35), 85 per cent of the king's income had come from the
land. By 1272 income from the land was less than 40 per cent of the royal income.
The king could only raise the rest by taxation. Since the rules of feudalism did not
include taxation, taxes could only be raised with the agreement of those wealthy
enough to be taxed.
Several kings had made arrangements for taxation before, but Edward I was
the first to create a "representative institution" which could provide the money he
needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of
Lords it contained a mixture of "gentry" (knights and other wealthy freemen from
the shires) and merchants from the towns. These were the two broad classes of
people who produced and controlled England's wealth.
In 1275 Edward I commanded each shire and each town (or borough) to send
two representatives to his parliament. These "commoners" would have stayed away
if they could, to avoid giving Edward money. But few dared risk Edward's anger.
They became unwilling representatives of their local community. This, rather than
Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that there should be "no taxation
without representation", later claimed by the American colonists of the eighteenth
century.
In other parts of Europe, similar "parliaments" kept all the gentry separate
from the commoners. England was special because the House of Commons
contained a mixture of gentry belonging to the feudal ruling class and merchants
and freemen who did not. The co-operation of these groups, through the House of
Commons, became important to Britain's later political and social development.
During the 150 years following Edward's death the agreement of the Commons
became necessary for the making of all statutes, and all special taxation additional
to regular taxes.
Industrial revolution
40
Part I
Several influences came together at the same time to revolutionise Britain's
industry: money, labour, a greater demand for goods, new power, and better
transport.
By the end of the eighteenth century, some families had made huge private
fortunes. Growing merchant banks helped put this money to use.
Increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the
new towns. These populations were made up of the people who had lost their land
through enclosures and were looking for work. They now needed to buy things
they had never needed before. In the old days people in the villages had grown
their own food, made many of their own clothes and generally managed without
having to buy very much. As landless workers these people had to buy food,
clothing and everything else they needed. This created an opportunity to make and
sell more goods than ever before. The same landless people who needed these
things also became the workers who made them.
By the early eighteenth century simple machines had already been invented
for basic jobs. They could make large quantities of simple goods quickly and
cheaply so that "mass production" became possible for the first time. Each machine
carried out one simple process, which introduced the idea of "division of labour"
among workers. This was to become an important part of the industrial revolution.
By the 1740s the main problem holding back industrial growth was fuel.
There was less wood, and in any case wood could not produce the heat necessary
to make iron and steel either in large quantities or of high quality. But at this time
the use of coal for changing iron ore into good quality iron or steel was perfected,
and this made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe. This happened only just
in time for the many wars in which Britain was to fight, mainly against France, for
the rest of the century. The demand for coal grew very quickly. In 1800 Britain
was producing four times as much coal as it had done in 1700, and eight times as
much iron.
41
Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for
other industries. No one saw this more clearly than John Wilkinson, a man with a
total belief in iron. He built the largest ironworks in the country. He built the
world's first iron bridge, over the River Severn, in 1779. He saw the first iron boats
made. He built an iron chapel for the new Methodist religious sect, and was
himself buried in an iron coffin. Wilkinson was also quick to see the value of new
inventions. When James Watt made a greatly improved steam engine in 1769,
Wilkinson improved it further by making parts of the engine more accurately with
his special skills in ironworking. In this way the skills of one craft helped the skills
of another. Until then steam engines had only been used for pumping, usually in
coal mines. But in 1781 Watt produced an engine with a turning motion, made of
iron and steel. It was a vital development because people were now no longer
dependent on natural power.
Part II
One invention led to another, and increased production in one area led to
increased production in others. Other basic materials of the industrial revolution
were cotton and woollen cloth, which were popular abroad. In the middle of the
century other countries were buying British uniforms, equipment and weapons for
their armies. To meet this increased demand, better methods of production had to
be found, and new machinery was invented which replaced handwork. The
production of cotton goods had been limited by the spinning process, which could
not provide enough cotton thread for the weavers. In 1764 a spinning machine was
invented which could do the work of several hand spinners, and other improved
machines were made shortly after. With the far greater production of cotton thread,
the slowest part of the cotton clothmaking industry became weaving. In 1785 a
power machine for weaving revolutionised clothmaking. It allowed Britain to make
cloth more cheaply than elsewhere, and Lancashire cotton cloths were sold in
every continent. But this machinery put many people out of work. It also changed
what had been a "cottage industry" done at home into a factory industry, where
workers had to keep work hours and rules set down by factory owners.
42
In the Midlands, factories using locally found clay began to develop very
quickly, and produced fine quality plates, cups and other china goods. These soon
replaced the old metal plates and drinking cups that had been used. Soon large
quantities of china were being exported. The most famous factory was one started
by Josiah Wedgwood. His high quality bone china became very popular, as it still
is.
The cost of such goods was made cheaper than ever by improved transport
during the eighteenth century. New waterways were dug between towns, and
transport by these canals was cheaper than transport by land. Roads, still used
mainly by people rather than by goods, were also improved during the century.
York, Manchester and Exeter were three days' travel from London in the 1720s,
but by the 1780s they could be reached in little over twenty-four hours. Along
these main roads, the coaches stopped for fresh horses in order to keep up their
speed. They became known as "stage" coaches, a name that became famous in the
"Wild West" of America. It was rapid road travel and cheap transport by canal that
made possible the economic success of the industrial revolution.
Soon Britain was not only exporting cloth to Europe. It was also importing
raw cotton from its colonies and exporting finished cotton cloth to sell to those
same colonies.
The social effects of the industrial revolution were enormous. Workers tried
to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. They wanted
fair wages and reasonable conditions in which to work. But the government
quickly banned these "combinations", as the workers' societies were known. Riots
occurred, led by the unemployed who had been replaced in factories by machines.
In 1799 some of these rioters, known as Luddites, started to break up the
machinery which had put them out of work. The government supported the factory
owners, and made the breaking of machinery punishable by death. The government
was afraid of a revolution like the one in France.
The loss of empire
Part I
43
At the end of the First World War, the German colonies of Africa, as well as
Iraq and Palestine in the Middle East, were added to Britain's area of control. Its
empire was now bigger than ever before, and covered a quarter of the entire land
surface of the world.
There were already signs, however, that the empire was coming to an end. At
the 1919 peace conference US President Woodrow Wilson's disapproval of
colonialism resulted in Britain's latest territorial gains being described as
"mandated" from the League of Nations. Britain had to agree to help these
territories towards self-government. The real questions were how long this would
take, and how much Britain would try to control the foreign policies of these
territories even after self-government had been achieved. In fact it took longer than
the populations of some of these areas had been led to hope, and by 1945 only Iraq
was independent, and even here Britain had a strong influence on its foreign
policy.
The United Nations Charter in 1945 also called for progress towards selfgovernment. It seemed hardly likely in this new mood that the British Empire
could last very long. This feeling was strengthened by the speed with which Britain
had lost control of colonial possessions to Japan during the war.
In India there had been a growing demand for freedom during the 1920s and
1930s. This was partly because of the continued mistrust and misunderstanding
between the British rulers and the Indian people, well described in E.M. Forster's
novel A Passage to India, published in 1924. But it was also the result of a growing
nationalist movement, skilfully led by Mahatma Gandhi, which successfully
disturbed British rule. By 1945 it was clear that British rule in India could no
longer continue. It was impossible and extremely expensive to try to rule 300
million people without their co-operation. In 1947 the British finally left India,
which then divided into a Hindu state and a smaller Muslim state called Pakistan.
Britain also left Palestine, where it was unable to keep its promises to both the
Arab inhabitants and the new Jewish settlers. Ceylon became independent the
following year.
44
For most of the 1950s Britain managed to keep its other possessions, but after
Suez it began to give them up. On a visit to Africa in 1960 Prime Minister
Macmillan warned of a "wind of change blowing through the Continent." On his
return to London he began to speed up plans to hand over power. This was partly
because of the rapid growth of local independence movements, but also because of
a change in thinking in Britain itself. Most people no longer believed in Britain's
right to rule. Between 1945 and 1965 500 million people in former colonies
became completely self-governing. In some countries, like Kenya, Cyprus and
Aden, British soldiers fought against local people. Other countries became
independent more peacefully.
Part II
On the whole, however, the ending of Britain's empire was a highly
successful process, carried out in spite of some who opposed surrendering power,
however costly this might be. It compared well with the bloody events which
occurred when both France and Belgium pulled out of their colonies. This
successful retreat resulted partly from the great skill of Prime Ministers and those
they chose for the difficult job of handing over power in each colony. But it was
also the result of the quality of its colonial administrators, particularly those in
junior positions. In spite of the great wrongs of colonial rule, many of these
administrators had the highest ideals of duty and service. It was largely due to their
work that the newly independent countries felt they wanted to remain on friendly
terms with Britain.
Britain tried to hold onto its international position through its Commonwealth,
which all the old colonies were invited to join as free and equal members. This has
been successful, because it is based on the kind of friendship that allows all
members to follow their own policies without interference. At the same time, it
allows discussion of international problems in a more relaxed atmosphere than is
possible through the United Nations. It was with the help of the Commonwealth
that Zimbabwe finally moved peacefully from rebellion by the whites to
independence and black majority rule.
45
Britain also tried to keep its influence by a number of treaties with friendly
governments in the Middle East and in southeast Asia. But most ex-colonies did
not wish to be brought into such arrangements, either with Britain or with any
other powerful country.
By 1985 Britain had few of its old colonial possessions left, and those it still
had were being claimed by other countries: Hong Kong by China, the
Falklands/Malvinas by Argentina, and Gibraltar by Spain. In 1982 Britain went to
war to take back the Falklands after an Argentinian invasion. In spite of the great
distance involved, British forces were able to carry out a rapid recapture of the
islands. The operation was very popular in Britain, perhaps because it suggested
that Britain was still a world power. But Britain's victory made an eventual
solution to the problem more difficult, and possession of the islands extremely
expensive. The war itself had cost £900 million, but the total cost of defending the
island since 1982 had risen to £3 billion by 1987.
46
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Предисловие …………………………………….
1
Unit 1 …………………………………………….
2
Unit 2 …………………………………………….
4
Unit 3 …………………………………………….
7
Unit 4 …………………………………………….
10
Unit 5 …………………………………………….
13
Unit 6 …………………………………………….
16
Unit 7 …………………………………………….
18
Unit 8 …………………………………………….
21
Unit 9 …………………………………………….
23
Unit 10 …………………………………………...
25
Unit 11 ……………………………………………
27
Unit 12 ……………………………………………
29
Unit 13 ……………………………………………
31
Unit 14 ……………………………………………
33
Supplementary reading …………………………..
37
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