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AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
REVIEW OUTLINE
I.
Basic Principles and Concepts
A. Main Components of Ecosystems (Chapter 4)
1. Biotic
a.
Levels of biological organization
2. Abiotic
a.
Levels of abiotic organization
B.
Energy (Chapter 4)
1. Definitions and types of energy
2. Two laws of thermodynamics and their definition
3. Photosynthesis/cellular respiration & their equations
4. Energy flow through ecosystem
a.
Trophic levels & food web
b.
Ecological pyramids (numbers, biomass, energy)
c.
Primary productivity (Gross primary productivity and Net primary
productivity)
C.
Ecosystems (Chapter 5)
1. Biological communities
2. Keystone species
3. Interactions among organisms
a.
Predation (adaptations & defenses)
b.
Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalisms, parasitism, ammenalism)
c.
Competition
4. Ecological Niches
a.
Definition
b.
Fundamental or Idealized vs. Realized
1. Limiting factors
2. Competitive exclusion
3. Resource partitioning
5. Species Diversity
a.
Margins and environmental stress
b.
Natural selection
6. Succession and community structure
a.
Definition
b.
Primary succession
c.
Secondary succession
D.
Biogeochemical Cycles (Chapter 6)
1. Carbon
2. Nitrogen
3. Phosphorous
4. Water
5. Sulfur
E. Atmosphere & Solar Radiation (Chapter 6)
1. Earth’s surface temperatures
a.
Latitude
b.
Season
2. Layers of the atmosphere
3. Atmospheric circulation
a.
Wind patterns
b.
Coriolis effect
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
Hydrosphere (Chapter 6)
1. Global ocean circulation
2. Ocean conveyor belt
3. Ocean-atmosphere interactions
a.
ENSO
b.
La Nina
Weather vs. Climate (Chapter 6)
1. Precipitation and regional differences
2. Tornados vs. tropical cyclones
Lithosphere (Chapter 6)
1. Plate tectonics
2. Earthquakes
3. Volcanoes
Terrestrial Biomes (Chapter 7)
1. Definition
2. Types and defining characteristics (biotic & abiotic)
a.
Tundra
b.
Taiga
c.
Temperate & tropical rain forest
d. Temperate & tropical grasslands
e.
Temperate deciduous forests
f.
Chaparral
g. Deserts
Aquatic Ecosystems (Chapter 7)
1. Environmental factors defining aquatic ecosystems
a.
Salinity
b.
Light
c.
Currents
d. Dissolved Oxygen
2. Representative aquatic ecosystems
a.
Freshwater
1. flowing-water ecosystems
2. standing-water ecosystems
3. freshwater wetlands
b.
Estuaries
c.
Marine
1. intertidal zone
2. benthic environment
3. neritic province
4. oceanic province
Case Study: The Florida Everglades
II.
Scientific Analysis (Chapter 2)
A. Observations and Hypothesis Development
B.
Collecting Samples and Data
1. Sample and Data Types
2. Grids and Quadrat
3. Map Making and Reading
C.
Modeling
1. Model Types
D.
Data Interpretation and Presentation
1. Data Compilation
2. Graphing and Interpretation
3. Data Presentation
4. Data Management
E.
F.
Methods for Solving Environmental Problems (Chapter 2)
1. Step-wise process
2. Implementation of the scientific method
a.
The "method"
b.
Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
c.
Experimental controls
d. Theories, principles, and laws
Health Effects and Risk Assessment (Chapter 2)
1. Risk, risk assessment, and risk management
2. LD50, LC50, ED50 and LOEL
3. Carcinogens and chemical mixtures
4. Cost-benefit analysis
Case Studies: Lake Washington; Tragedy of the Commons
G.
H.
I.
History of Environmental Movement (Chapter 3)
1. Conservation
2. Mid-1800’s through early 1900’s
a.
John James Audubon
b.
Hendry David Thoreau
c.
George Perkins Marsh
d. Theodore Roosevelt
e.
Gifford Pinchot
3. Mid-1900’s through present
a.
Franklin Roosevelt
b.
Aldo Leopold
c.
Rachel Carson
4. Establishment of EPA and passing of NEPA
Economics of Pollution (How much pollution is acceptable) (Chapter 3)
1. Economics
a.
Costs, cost estimates, and “optimum” amount of pollution
b.
Pollution control via economic strategies
2. Environmental Policies
a.
United States
b.
World views
Environmental ethics (Chapter 3)
1. Ethics and environmental ethics
2. Worldviews and environmental worldviews
Case Study: Old-growth forests of Pacific Northwest
III.
Population Dynamics
A. Population Ecology (Chapter 8)
1. Population density
2. Population growth
a.
Birth and death rates
b.
Immigration and emigration rates
c.
Growth rate calculation
3. Population dynamics
a.
Exponential growth and the J- shaped curve
b.
Carrying Capacity and the S-shaped curve
c.
Competition Intra- and Extra-species
B.
Reproductive Strategies (Chapter 8)
1. K-selected and r-selected species
2. Type I, II, and III survivorship
C.
Factors affecting Population Size (Chapter 8)
1. density-dependent factors including predation, competition, and disease
2. density-independent factors including random abiotic events (e.g., earthquakes)
D.
E.
F.
Human Population Growth (Chapter 8)
1. Projecting future numbers & zero population growth
2. Demographics & demographical stages
a.
Undeveloped
b.
Developing
c.
Transitional
d. Industrial
e.
Postindustrial
3. Population characteristics
a.
Infant morality rate
b.
Total fertility rate
c.
Replacement-level fertility
d. Age structure
Human Population Explosion (Chapter 9)
1. Factors relating to human population growth
a.
World hunger
b.
Economic effects
c.
Natural resources and consumption
d. Environmental Impact model: I = P * A * T
2. Urbanization
a.
Trends in distribution: rural and urban areas
b.
Characteristics of urban populations
c.
City as ecosystem
Fertility, National Policies, and Controlling Human Population Growth (Chapter 9)
1. Fertility rates and related factors
a.
Cultural values
b.
Social and economic status of women
c.
Availability of family planning services
2. National policies on fertility
a.
China
b.
India
c.
Mexico
d. Nigeria
3. Control of global population
a.
1994 Global Summit on Population and Development
b.
Stabilizing population
Case Study: U.S. Immigration
Case Study: Curitiba, Brazil
IV.
Environmental Quality
A. Water
1. Structure and properties of water (Chapter 13)
a.
Molecular structure
b.
Physical properties and their significance
2. Water Supplies (Chapter 13)
a.
Hydrologic cycle
b.
Water distribution (saltwater vs. freshwater)
c.
Freshwater distribution (e.g., locations of freshwater)
3. Water Use (Chapter 13)
4. Water Resource Problems (Chapter 13)
a.
Too much water
1. flooding
b.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Too little water
1. Overdrawing surface water
2. Aquifer depletion (overdrafting groundwater)
3. Salinization of irrigated soils
c.
Poor water quality
Water problems in United States (Chapter 13)
a.
Mono Lake
b.
Colorado River Basin
c.
Ogallala Aquifer
Global water problems (Chapter 13)
a.
Drinking water problems (or lack thereof)
b.
Population growth and water problems
c.
Sharing water resources among countries
1. Rhine River basin
2. Aral Sea
Water Management & Creating Sustainable Supplies (Chapter 13)
a.
Dams & Reservoirs (Columbia & Missouri Rivers)
b.
Water diversion projects
c.
Desalinization (reverse osmosis)
d. Conservation
1. reducing agricultural use
2. reducing industrial use
3. reducing municipal use
Types of Water Pollution (Chapter 21)
a.
Sewage
1. enrichment
2. biological oxygen demand (BOD)
b.
Disease-causing agents
1. viruses & bacteria
2. fecal coliform
c.
Sediment pollution
d. Inorganic plant and algal nutrients
1. dead zone
e.
Organic compounds
f.
Inorganic chemicals
1. lead
2. mercury
3. radioactive substances and radon
g. Thermal pollution
Eutrophication (Chapter 21)
a.
Definition of eutrophic and olgiotrophic
b.
Artificial Eutrophication
Sources of Water Pollution (Chapter 21)
a.
Surface Water Pollution
1. Point source vs. non-point source pollution
2. Agricultural pollution
3. Industrial pollution
b.
Groundwater Pollution
Improving Water Quality (Chapter 21)
a.
Water purification
1. chlorine dilemma
2. fluoride dilemma
b.
Municipal Sewage Treatment (Sewer Science)
c.
Septic Systems
B.
Soil
12. Laws Controlling Water Pollution (Chapter 21)
a.
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
b.
Clean Water Act (CWA)
c.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
13. Water Pollution Case Studies (Chapter 21)
a.
United States (Great Lakes)
b.
Global (Po River, Italy; Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela; Ganges River, India)
1. Definition (Chapter 14)
2. Composition and Formation (Chapter 14)
a.
Components
b.
Soil Horizons
c.
Soil Organisms
d. Soil and Nutrient Cycling
3. Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil (Chapter 14)
a.
Texture and particle size
b.
Soil acidity and plant growth
4. Major Soil Groups (Chapter 14)
a.
Oxisol
b.
Mollisol
c.
Spodosol
d. Alfisol
e.
Aridosol
5. Soil Problems (Chapter 14)
a.
Soil erosion (American Dust Bowl)
b.
Nutrient Mineral Depletion
c.
United States soil problems and policies
1. National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
2. Soil Conservation Act
3. Food Security Act
4. Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act (Farm Bill)
d. World soil problems
6. Soil Conservation and Regeneration (Chapter 14)
a.
Conservation Tillage
b.
Crop Rotation
c.
Contour Plowing, Strip Cropping and Terracing
d. Preserving Soil Fertility
e.
Soil Reclamation
7. Soil Pollution (Chapter 21)
a.
Irrigation and Salinization
b.
Soil Remediation
1. dilution
2. vapor extraction
3. bioremediation
4. phytoremediation
END OF SEMESTER ONE
C.
Air
1. Components (Chapter 19)
2. Major Pollutants (Chapter 19)
a.
Primary air pollutants
b.
Secondary air pollutants
c.
Major classes of air pollutants
1. particulate matter
2. nitrogen oxides
3. sulfur oxides
4. carbon oxides
5. hydrocarbons
6. ozone
d. Sources of outdoor air pollution
1. transportation
2. industry
3. natural sources
3. Outdoor Air Pollution (Chapter 19)
a.
Human health
1. general issues
2. children
b.
Smog
1. types of smog
2. impact of topography and weather
3. impact of urban heat islands
c.
Controlling outdoor air pollution
d. Regulation of Air Quality
1. Clean Air Act
2. United States (Los Angeles)
3. Global (Mexico City)
e.
Long-distance transport of air pollution
4. Indoor Air Pollution (Chapter 19)
a.
Sick building syndrome
b.
Indoor air pollution and asthma
c.
Radon
d. Asbestos
5. Noise Pollution (Chapter 19)
a.
Effects of noise
b.
Controlling noise
6. Electromagnetic Fields (Chapter 19)
7. Global Warming (Chapter 20)
a.
Causes of global warming and greenhouse effect
b.
Causes of climate change & climate models
1. global warming
2. global cooling
c.
Effects of global warming
1. icecaps and glaciers
2. precipitation
3. organisms
4. human health
5. agriculture
d. Issues and solutions to global warming
1. International perspective: high developed countries and
developing countries
2. Decreasing greenhouse gas emissions
3. Mitigation
1. sequestering carbon in trees
2. carbon management
3. ocean fertilizing
4. Kyoto Protocol
8. Ozone Depletion (Chapter 20)
a.
Overview of ozone depletion
b.
Causes of ozone depletion
c.
Effects of ozone depletion
d. Montreal Protocol
Case Study: Recovering of the Ozone Layer
9. Acid Deposition (Chapter 20)
a.
Overview of acid deposition
b.
Causes of acid deposition
c.
Effects of acid deposition
d. Politics of acid deposition
Case Study: Recovering from Acid Deposition
D.
10. Links between global warming, ozone depletion and acid deposition
Solid Waste
1. Types of Solid Waste (Chapter 23)
2. Disposal of Solid Waste (Chapter 23)
a.
Open dumps
b.
Sanitary Landfills
c.
Incineration
d. Composting
3. Waste Prevention (Chapter 23)
a.
Source reduction
1. Pollution Prevention Act
2. Fee-per-bag approach
b.
Reuse
c.
Recycling
1. paper
2. glass
3. aluminum
4. other metals
5. plastic
6. tires
d. Integrated Waste Management
4. Hazardous Waste (Chapter 23)
a.
Types of hazardous waste
1. dioxins
2. PCBs
b.
Management of hazardous waste
1. chemical accidents
2. current policies
3. clean-up
1. the Superfund Program
2. biological treatment/bioremediation
3. green chemistry
4. source reduction/long-term storage
5. Environmental Justice (Chapter 23)
a.
Definition
b.
Environmental justice in the United States
c.
Environmental justice and international waste management
V.
Resources
A. Definition and Types
1. Definition
2. Types
B.
Water
1. Current Status of Resource
2. As Drinking Water
3. As Ecosystem
C.
Land (Chapter 17)
1. Importance of Natural Areas
2. Current Land Use in United States
3. Wilderness (definition and roles)
4. Wild and Scenic Rivers (definition and roles)
5. National Parks (definitions and roles)
6. Wildlife Refuges (definitions and roles)
7. Forests
a.
Ecosystem services and economic value
b.
Management practices
1. harvesting practices
2. deforestation
1. tropical rain forest
2. tropical dry forest
3. boreal forest
4. forests in United States (Tongass National Forest)
8. Rangelands
a.
Importance
b.
Degradation and desertification
c.
Rangelands in United States
1. Management issues: grazing rights
9. Wetlands
a.
Ecosystem services and economic value
b.
Threats
c.
Policy and implementation issues
d. Coastal wetlands
1. ecosystem services
2. management issues
3. national marine sanctuaries
10. Agricultural Lands
a.
Ecosystem services and economic value
b.
Threats and policy
11. Threats to Land Resources and Conservation Strategies
a.
Urbanization and Suburban Sprawl
b.
Land Use
1. Planning
2. Management of federal lands
c.
Conservation of land resources
D.
Food Resources (Chapter 17)
1. Human Nutrition
a.
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
b.
Minerals
c.
Vitamins
2. World Food Problems
a.
Diseases associated with malnutrition, undernutrition, and overnutrition
b.
Global food supply
E.
1. Famine
2. Grain stockpiles
c.
Economics and food supply
d. Culture, economics, and foot supply
e.
Developing additional food resources
f.
Alternative lifestyles and increasing food availability (vegan and
vegetarian)
3. Agriculture
a.
Types of agricultural practices
b.
Domestician, genetic diversity, and genetic engineering
1. Potential problems with low genetic diversity
2. Genetic engineering of crop plants and livestock
c.
Increasing Yields
1. Increasing crop yields
1. The Green Revolution
2. The Post-Green Revolution era
2. Increasing livestock yields
d. Food Processing and Additives
e.
Environmental Impacts of Agriculture
1. Problems: air and water pollution, land degradation
2. Solutions: changing agricultural practices
1. Sustainable agriculture
2. Genetic engineering
4. Fisheries
a.
Challenges faced by commercial fisheries
1. Management issues
1. Overfishing
2. Impact of by-catch
2. Degradation of habitat
b.
Aquaculture: pros and cons
Pesticides (Chapter 22)
1. Definition and Introduction to Pesticides
a.
Broad- and narrow-spectrum pesticides
b.
First- and second-generation pesticides
2. Major Groups of Pesticides
a.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
b.
Organophosphates
c.
Carbamates
3. Major Groups of Herbicides
a.
Nonselective Herbicides
b.
Selective Herbicides
1. Broad-leaf herbicides
2. Grass herbicides
4. Major Classes of Insecticides
a.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
b.
Organophosphates
c.
Carbamates
5. Benefits of Pesticides
a.
Disease Control
b.
Crop Protection
6. Problems with using Pesticides
a.
Development of genetic resistance
b.
Imbalances in the ecosystem
c.
Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification
d.
e.
Mobility in the environment
Risks to human health
1. Short-term effects (acute)
2. Long-term effects (chronic)
3. Endocrine disrupters
4. Effects in children
7. Solution to Pesticides Dilemma
a.
Cultivation to control pests
b.
Biological controls
c.
Reproductive controls
d. Pheromones and hormones
e.
Genetic controls
f.
Quarantine
g. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
h. Irradiating foods
8. Laws Controlling Pesticide Use
a.
United States
1. Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act
2. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
3. Food Quality Protection Act
b.
Global/International
1. Export and use of banned pesticides
2. Import of food tainted with banned pesticides
c.
Changing perceptions to limit pesticide use
Case Study: Use of Pesticides in the Vietnam War; Bt, Its Potential and Problems
F.
Biodiversity (Chapter 16)
1. Definition of Biodiversity
2. Significance of Biological Diversity
a.
Ecosystem services and species diversity
b.
Genetic diversity
1. research
2. medicine
3. agriculture
4. industry
c.
Aesthetics, ethics, and spiritual value
3. Threats to Biodiversity
a.
Extinctions
1. Endangered vs. Threatened status
2. Characteristics of a endangered species
3. Biological distinct areas at particular risk
b.
Human Activities Threatening Biodiversity
1. habitat loss
2. exotic species
3. pollution
4. overexploitation
Case Study: Disappearing Frogs
4. Conservation of Biodiversity
a.
Conservation
1. habitat protection
2. habitat restoration
3. captive-breeding programs and seed banks
4. role of conservation organizations
b.
Laws Promoting Conservation
1. United States - Endangered Species Act
G.
1. habitat conservation plants
2. U.S. Biological Resources Division
2. International – World Conservation Strategy
5. Wildlife Management
a.
Migratory animals (arctic snow geese)
b.
Aquatic organisms (gray whale)
6. Reacting to Declining Biodiversity
a.
Increase public awareness
b.
Support research
c.
Control pollution
d. Provide economic incentives
Mining and Mineral Resources (Chapter 15)
1. Definitions
a.
Minerals: sulfides and oxides
b.
Rocks and ores: high-grade and low-grade
c.
Metallic and non-metallic minerals
d. Laws relating to mining
1. General Mining Law
2. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
2. Mineral distribution and formation
a.
Formation
1. magmatic concentration
2. hydrothermal processes
3. sedimentation
4. evaporation
b.
Distribution
3. Extraction of Minerals
a.
Finding minerals
b.
Extracting minerals
1. types of mines
c.
Processing minerals
4. Environmental Impacts of Mining and Processing
a.
Environmental impacts of mining
b.
Environmental impacts of processing
Case Study: Copper Basin, Tennessee
H.
I.
c.
Restoration
5. International Perspective on Mining
a.
Demand for minerals
b.
Supply, distribution, and reserves
6. Increasing Mineral Supplies
a.
New Sources of Minerals
1. Antarctica
2. Ocean Floor
b.
Advanced Mining Technologies
1. Biomining
c.
Conservation: reuse and recycling
d. Changing Attitudes (dematerialization)
Forests
1. Current Status of Resource
2. Logging Practices
3. Forest Management
Energy
1. Energy Consumption: Highly Developed vs. Developing Countries
2. Fossil Fuels (Chapter 10)
a.
b.
c.
What are fossil fuels and how are they formed
Coal
1. Grades of coal, their characteristics and uses
2. Availability
3. Mining practices
4. Environmental Impacts
1. Mining
2. Combustion
3. Pollution control technologies
4. Land reclamation
Oil and Natural Gas
1. Oil/Natural gas products, their characteristics and uses
2. Availability and Exploration
1. Relevant geology
2. Reserves
3. Global demand, supply, and distribution
3. Environmental Impacts
1. Production and transportation
2. Combustion
Case Studies: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; Prince William Sound Oil Spill
d.
Synfuels
1. Introduction and Definition
1. Tar sands or oil sands
2. Gas hydrates or methane hydrates
3. Coal liquefaction
4. Coal gasification
2. Environmental Impacts
e.
Energy Strategy for United States
3. Nuclear Energy (Chapter 11)
a.
Overview of the Nuclear Process
b.
Conventional Nuclear Fission
1. Parts of the nuclear power plant
2. How electricity is produced from nuclear energy
3. Safety features
c.
Compare & Contrast nuclear fission, breeder nuclear fission and fusion
d. Nuclear power vs. conventional energy sources
e.
Costs, including plant construction and safety issues
f.
Safety in nuclear power plants
1. Effects of radiation on humans
2. Case studies
1. Three-mile Island
2. Chernobyl
g. Links between nuclear energy and nuclear weapons
h. Radioactive wastes
1. Low-level vs. high-level wastes (solid & liquid)
2. Storage of nuclear wastes
1. Low-level: Carlsbad, NM
2. High-level: Yucca Mountain, NV
3. Decommissioning nuclear power plants
i.
Future of Nuclear Power
4. Renewable Energy Sources (Chapter 12)
a.
Direct Solar Energy
1. Passive vs. active solar heat
2. Solar thermal electric generation
VI.
3. Photovoltaic solar cells
4. Solar-generated hydrogen
b.
Indirect Solar Energy (definitions, advantages, disadvantages)
1. Biomass energy
2. Wind energy
3. Hydropower
1. Dames
2. Ocean waves
3. Ocean thermal energy conversion
c.
Other Renewable Energy Sources
1. Tidal Energy
2. Geothermal Energy
1. Hydrothermal reservoirs
2. Hot, dry rocks
d. Conservation & Efficiency
1. Energy consumption trends
1. Economics
2. Technology
1. Energy Star – consumer awareness program
2. Cogeneration
2. Efficiency
1. Commercial Buildings
2. Homes
Environment & Society
A. Managing for the Future
1. Conservation
2. Resource Allocation
3. Sustainability and Trade-offs