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Higher History: European and World
Germany, 1815–1939
A study of the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century Germany leading to the overcoming of
obstacles to unification of the nation by 1871, and the development of extreme nationalism after
1918, illustrating the themes of nationalism, authority and conflict.
Mandatory content
Illustrative areas
1. An evaluation of the reasons for the
growth of nationalism in Germany, 1815–50
Effects of French Revolution and Napoleonic
Wars; military weakness; cultural factors; role of
the Liberals; economic factors; the Zollverein.
2. An assessment of the degree of growth of
nationalism in Germany, up to 1850
Supporters of nationalism — educated middle
class, Liberals; opponents of nationalism;
attitudes of peasants; political turmoil in the
1840s; the Frankfurt Parliament, divisions; the
collapse of revolution in Germany, 1848–49.
3. An evaluation of the obstacles to German
unification, 1815–50
Divisions among the nationalists; Austrian
strength; German princes; religious differences;
economic differences; indifference of the
masses; resentment towards Prussia.
4. An evaluation of the reasons why
unification was achieved in Germany, by
1871
Prussian military strength; Prussian economic
strength; the decline of Austria; the role of
Bismarck; the attitude of other states; actions of
Napoleon III.
5. An evaluation of the reasons why the
Nazis achieved power, in 1933
Weaknesses of Weimar Republic; resentment
towards the Treaty of Versailles; economic
difficulties; social and economic divisions; the
appeal of the Nazis after 1928; the role of Hitler;
weaknesses and mistakes of opponents.
6. An evaluation of the reasons why the
Nazis were able to stay in power, 1933–39
Establishment of a totalitarian state; the crushing
of opposition; fear and state terrorism; social
controls; propaganda; successful foreign policy;
economic policies; social policies.
1
Higher History – European and World
The Growth and Failure of German Nationalism
1815 – 1850
Issue 1 - An evaluation of the reasons for the growth of nationalism in Germany, 1815–50
Issue 2 - An assessment of the degree of growth of nationalism in Germany, up to 1850
Issue 3 - An evaluation of the obstacles to German unification, 1815–50
This is the only topic for which there are three different issues and essay questions. You
must make sure that you identify correctly the questions which may come up for this topic.
Background – Europe in 1815
1. Provide definitions for the following: Republic
Monarchy
Duchy
Nationalist
Liberal
Constitution
Unification
Kleindeutschland
Grossdeutschland
2. Provide information about: Holy Roman Empire (First Reich)
Hapsburg Dynasty
Hohenzollern Dynasty
Emperor Napoleon I
Prince Metternich
The Deutscher Bund
2
Growth of Nationalism – Impact of the French Revolution and Napoleonic
Wars
3. Explain in detail the impact of the Napoleonic Wars on the German States. (Mention
reduction to 39 states, liberalism and nationalism).
4. Explain the impact of the decisions made at the 1815 Congress of Vienna on the German
states.
Mention:
a) The Deutscher Bund
b) The two leading states in the Bund
c) How the formation and structure of the Bund helped to keep the German states divided
Ref: Richards, Chapter 10, Cameron, Robertson and Henderson, pp56-58
Factors Favouring Nationalism in the German States
5. Make a spider diagram illustrating the things that the German states had in common, i.e.
what they shared. (Mention: language, race, history, music, literature, philosophy,
military weakness and anything else that you can think of)
Ref: PowerPoint ‘Factors favouring German nationalism’
Obstacles to Nationalism in the German States
6. Explain the following external and internal obstacles to German nationalism:
Austrian strength and opposition
Opposition from other European countries (e.g. France and Russia)
Religious differences
Opposition from the rulers of individual states
Divisions within the nationalists
Indifference of the masses/Attitude of peasants
Resentment towards Prussia
Ref: PowerPoint ‘Obstacles to German nationalism’
3
Growth of Nationalism – The Liberals and the Burschenschaften
Ref: PowerPoint ‘Early Nationalism in the Universities’
7. Describe and explain the growth of nationalist societies (Burschenschaften) in the
German states after 1815.
8. Describe the events of the 1817 Wartburg Festival and the murder of Kotzebue.
9. What were the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819?
10. What impact did these Decrees have on German nationalism?
11. Describe the events of the 1832 Hambach Festival.
12. Explain the Six Acts of 1832?
13. How important was this cultural/intellectual nationalism in the period 1818 – 1850 (do
this as a +/- table)?
Growth of nationalism – Economic Factors and the Zollverein
14.
a) Describe the population growth, urbanisation and industrialisation in the German
states during this period.
b) What impact did these developments have on German nationalism?
Ref: McGonigle pp13 - 18
15.
a) What was the Zollverein?
b) When and why was it established?
c) By 1836 how many states were members of the Zollverein?
d) Which key state did not become a member of the Zollverein and what effect did
this have?
16. In what ways could it be argued that the Zollverein promoted German nationalism?
17. In what ways could it be argued that the Zollverein did not promote German
nationalism?
Ref: PowerPoint ‘The Zollverein’
4
Growth and Failure of Nationalism –
The 1848 Revolutions and the Frankfurt Parliament
Ref Cameron, Robertson and Henderson pp59 – 61, Richards pp116 - 120
The 1848 Revolutions
18. Explain the revival of German liberalism after the succession of Frederick William IV to
the throne of Prussia (Ref: Richards p108 and 116)
19. What factors were common causes of revolution in nearly every European state in the
1840s?
20. What happened to Prince Metternich (the Austrian chancellor) in 1848?
21. What effects did revolution in Austria have on German nationalism?
22. Describe events in Berlin in 1848.
23. What was the nature and purpose of the Frankfurt Assembly?
24. What were the main issues over which delegates disagreed?
25. Describe the eventual collapse and dissolution of the Assembly.
26. Create a detailed spider-diagram explaining the reasons why political nationalism failed
to unite the German states in 1848 – 49. (Take care to consider the general reasons for
failure as well as the specific ones related to the collapse of the Frankfurt Assembly.)
Ref: Grey table on p61 Cameron, Robertson and Henderson.
Postcript – Erfurt and Olmutz
27. Explain what the Erfurt Union and the Humiliation of Olmutz were.
28. Analyse the importance of Erfurt and Olmutz with reference to:
The opposition of kings and princes to nationalism and liberalism
The opposition of Russia and Austria
Ref: PowerPoint ‘The Erfurt Union 1849’
Conclusion
29. Copy and complete …
Otto Von Bismarck, the man who eventually played the leading role in uniting Germany,
described the period before 1850 as ‘The time when nothing happened’. It is certainly clear
that nationalists had not achieved their goal by 1850, in that Germany was not unified.
However, Bismarck’s statement is not entirely accurate in that …..
5
The Unification of Germany
1850 – 1871
Issue 4 - An evaluation of the reasons why unification was achieved in Germany, by 1871
Germany was formally unified on 18th January 1871, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War.
In the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles the German Empire was proclaimed.
Wilhelm I of Prussia became the first German Kaiser and Otto Von Bismarck became the
first German Chancellor.
Attempts to unify the German states before 1850 had been unsuccessful. There are several
reasons why Germany became unified in the period 1850 – 1871.
In this section we will consider:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Prussian economic strength
The decline of Austria
Prussian military strength
The leadership of Bismarck
The actions of Napoleon III
Prussian Economic Strength
(Ref: Power Point – ‘Growing Prussian Economic Strength’)
In the 1850s and 60s Prussia’s economy continued to grow. Economically, Prussia was
starting to outstrip Austria. ‘This would have far-reaching political, economic and military
consequences for both powers.’ (McGonigle)
1. Describe the growth of Prussian industry (mention coal, iron and railways).
2. Why was the acquisition of the Rhineland so important to the growth of Prussian
industry?
3. Explain the continued importance of the Zollverein during this period.
Bismarck famously said in 1862 that it would be ‘iron and blood’ that would unite the
German states. The British economist J.M. Keynes, however said that German unification
was due more to ‘coal and iron’.
4. Explain the meaning of the quotes above from Bismarck and Keynes.
6
The Decline of Austria
(Ref: Power Points – ‘The Decline of Austria’ and ‘Prussian Growth/Austrian Decline’)
In the 1850s and 1860s the balance of power within the German states began to swing away
from Austria and towards Prussia. Economically, militarily and politically Prussia was
becoming the dominant state.
5. Why did Austria’s political power decline in the 1850s? (Mention: death of
Schwarzenberg.)
6. Explain the failure of Austria to establish an alternative Zollverein in 1852 and the
impact of Austria’s industrial backwardness on her military strength.
7. Explain why Austria’s previously good relationships with Russia ended. (Mention:
Crimean War)
8. Why did Austria’s international power decline in the 1850s? (Mention: industrial
backwardness and the French and Italian Wars)
Prussian Military Strength
The Key Men Come to Power
In 1858 Frederick William IV of Prussia was declared insane and his brother William, or
Wilhelm, became Regent. In 1861 Frederick William died and William became Prussian
King (Wilhelm I)
King William was a very different man to his older brother. He was by training and
profession a soldier – thus, he was willing to use war an instrument of foreign policy. He
was keen to avenge the ‘Humiliation of Olmutz’. Also he believed in the Divine Right of
Kings, i.e. that monarchs were appointed by God and responsible only to God for their
actions; certainly monarchs should not give too much power to elected assemblies.
However, Wilhelm was willing to appoint government ministers who were strong-minded.
In 1859 upon becoming Regent, Wilhelm appointed Albrecht von Roon to be the Prussian
Minister of War. Von Roon was determined to strengthen Prussia’s army. Next, Wilhelm
appointed Helmuth von Moltke as Chief of the Prussian General Staff.
9. Explain von Roon’s and von Moltke’s plans to modernise and expand the Prussian
army.
10. Take a page and divide it into three sections. In each section, summarise the role and
importance of the Prussian army in each of the three Wars of Unification with
Denmark, Austria and Prussia. (Leave a page and come back and do this question
when you have learned about the Wars of Unification
7
The Role of Bismarck
New taxes were needed to pay for the army reforms and the Landtag (Prussian parliament,
dominated by Liberals) refused to agree to the new taxes. This resulted in a constitutional
crisis over who ruled Prussia – King or Landtag? Wilhelm considered abdication but was
persuaded by von Roon to summon Otto von Bismarck from Paris to resolve the crisis.
11. Who was Otto von Bismarck and why was he chosen by Wilhelm to become the new
Minister President of Prussia?
12. Quote the most significant part of Bismarck’s ‘iron and blood’ speech and explain
how it illustrates Bismarck’s future approach to the unification process.
13. How did Bismarck resolve the crisis?
14. Bismarck is famous for his opportunism and Realpolitik. Explain.
The Schleswig-Holstein Crisis and War with Denmark 1864
Ref: Richards pp143 - 146
15. Put the following statements about the outbreak of the Prusso-Danish War of 1864
into the correct chronological order.
 The Prussians and Austrians formed an alliance
 Because there had been frequent disputes over the Duchies, the 1852 London
Protocol guaranteed their virtual independence from Denmark.
 These two states were largely independent, though technically the King of
Denmark was Duke of both of them.
 Holstein was a member state of the Bund.
 In 1863 the new Danish King attempted to increase his control of the two
duchies, thus breaking the London Protocol.
 German nationalists protested to the Bund.
 Bismarck saw this as an opportunity to promote Prussia as the champion of
German interests.
 Schleswig and Holstein were two Duchies (i.e. territories governed by a Duke)
between Denmark and the Bund.
 The Bund sent troops to defend the German population of the duchies.
 War broke out on 1st February 1864.
 Holstein had a largely German population, as did southern Schleswig. Northern
Schleswig was mostly Danish.
16. Who won the war and why? (Make sure to mention the isolation of Denmark – Ref
Richards pp144 - 145)
17. Give details of the 1865 Convention of Gastein.
18. Why did Bismarck refer to the Convention of Gastein as ‘papering over the cracks’?
8
The Austro-Prussian War (The Seven Weeks’ War) 1866
Ref: Richards pp146 - 149
Bismarck’s primary goal had always been a Kleindeutschland, dominated by Prussia. In
order to achieve this war against Austria was unavoidable. Building on what had been
learned in the war against Denmark he began to prepare for such a war.
19. How did Bismarck ensure French neutrality in any future war between Prussia and
Austira? (Mention Biarritz and the actions of Napoleon III)
20. What were the terms of the Prussian alliance with Italy drawn up in April 1866.
Bismarck was aware that the Russians would not help the Austrians (because of the Crimean
War) ; nor would the British (whose interests were not involved).
Because of the terms of the Italian alliance and in the interests of making the Austrians
appear to be the aggressors, Bismarck began to subtly to provoke the Austrians into a
declaration of war. Issues between Prussia and Austria over access to Schelswig and
Holstein were used by Bismarck to provoke the Austrians into mobilisation. The Austrians
also took the issue to the Bund, breaching the Convention of Gastein. When the Austrians
urged the Bund states to attack insolent Prussia, Bismarck took this as a declaration of war.
21. Why did the Prussians win the war so quickly? (Mention: The Italians, The greater
number of Bund states on the Prussian side, The Prussian needle guns, Prussian use
of railways, the telegraph, Prussian military leadership, the Battle of
Konnigratz/Sadowa)
22. Explain what Bismarck did when the French attempted to claim territory in the
Rhineland as compensation for their neutrality. (Ref: Richards p147)
23. Why did Bismarck want to ‘avoid wounding the Austrians too severely’ in the peace
treaty?
24. What consequently were the terms of the Treaty of Prague?
The most important outcome of the Austro-Prussian War was the dissolution of the Bund
and the creation of the North German Confederation:






A confederation of all of the German states north of the River Main.
It was not completely voluntary. Prussia simply annexed states which
objected to being members of the confederation.
Wilhelm became the first President of the North German Confederation
which was completely dominated by Prussia.
It was a state in its own right and controlled armed services and foreign
policy.
The member states retained control only of their internal affairs.
Four southern Catholic states, the biggest being Bavaria were not part of this
Confederation.
Austria was not part of the confederation.
9
The Franco Prussian War 1870 – 1871
Ref: Richards pp151 – 154
25. What were the terms of the secret military alliances made with the four southern
states?
26. What indication do these alliances give of Bismarck’s likely next move?
27. Find some good historiography in your textbooks to illustrate the contrasting views
of historians on the extent of Bismarck’s planning for the Franco-Prussian War.
28. Explain briefly how a problem over the Spanish throne led to an increase in tension
between France and the North German Confederation.
Concerned at the possibility of war, Wilhelm I went against Bismarck and withdrew
Leopold’s candidature. Napoleon III sent his ambassador to the spa town of Ems to obtain a
written assurance from Wilhelm that there would be no future Hohenzolleren (Prussian) to
the Spanish throne. This demand was foolishly in the form of an ultimatum.
Wilhelm politely refused to give any such guarantee. He dismissed the French ambassador
and sent a telegram to Chancellor Bismarck detailing the French demands and giving a
summary of what had taken place.
While Wilhelm ‘supposed that he had made a fine stroke for peace’ (AJP Taylor), Bismarck
edited and altered the tone of Wilhelm’s telegram before releasing it to the press upon whom
it had an electrifying effect. The French Emperor, politicians and public were enraged at
what now appeared to be a snub to the French by the arrogant Prussians and France declared
war on the North German Confederation the 19th July 1870. Once again Bismarck had
shown that he was a master opportunist.
29. Why did France fight alone (Ref: Richards p154)?
30. Why did the four southern states fight with the North German Confederation? (You
should know this!)
31. Why did the Prussians win the war?
32. Explain how Napoleon III was overthrown and taken prisoner (Ref Richards p99 –
101)
After the French surrender, but before the final peace settlement was agreed, the formal
unification of Germany took place. On 18th January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the
Palace of Versailles, the formal proclamation of the German Empire took place. Wilhelm
was declared Kaiser and Bismarck Chancellor of the Second German Reich.
10
33. Explain why the French found this proclamation particularly humiliating.
34. What were the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt, May 1871?
Here are some good quotes for you.
Mosse – ‘Bismarck’s task of unifying Germany was made easier by circumstances. If he
played his hand with great skill, it was a good one in the first place’
Bismarck – ‘A statesman is like a man wandering in a forest who knows his general
direction but not the exact point at which he will emerge from the wood.’
35. Find at least two more quotes about Bismarck’s overall contribution to unification
yourself. (Ref: Power Point ‘Bismarck – Opportunist or Architect?’)
11
The Failure of the Weimar Republic and
The Rise of the Nazis
1918 – 1933
Issue 5 - An evaluation of the reasons why the Nazis achieved power, in 1933
On 9th November 1918 The Kaiser abdicated and a new German Republic was created. This
republic came to be known as the Weimar Republic as its constitution was drawn up in the
town of Weimar in 1919.
On the 9th November Adolf Hitler, who had fought in the German army during the first
World War, was in hospital recovering from a British gas attack a few weeks earlier which
had temporarily blinded him. News of the end of the war delighted most of the other
patients, but not Hitler. Later he wrote ‘I knew all was lost. Only fools, liars and
criminals could hope for mercy from the enemy. In these nights hatred grew in me,
hatred for those responsible for the deed. Miserable and degenerate criminals! ….. My
own fate became known to me. I decided to go into politics.’
However, it was not until fifteen years later in 1933 that Hitler and the Nazis came to power.
There are several factors responsible for the ultimate failure of the Weimar Republic and the
rise to power of the Nazis. In this topic we will look at:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The legacy of the Great War
The weaknesses of the Weimar Republic
Economic difficulties
The appeal of the Nazis after 1928
The role of Hitler
The weaknesses and mistakes of opponents
12
The Legacy of the Great War
It has been argued that the Weimar Republic was ‘doomed from the start’; partly because
this regime was always associated with Germany’s defeat in the First World War.
The Armistice – 11 November 1918
1. Explain who the ‘November Criminals’ were; why they were called this and what the
Dolchstüss was. (Page 103 Cameron, Robertson and Henderson)
The Treaty of Versailles – 28 June 1919
2. Summarise why the peace treaty was so despised in Germany. Don’t write a huge list of
the terms, try to summarise in a paragraph. Mention the following – diktat, territorial
losses, disarmament, war guilt, reparations and lack of collective security (pp103 –
104 C, R&H)
3. How can it be argued that the new regime was unfairly associated with Germany’s defeat
in the Great War?
Weaknesses of the Weimar Republic
The Constitution of the Weimar Republic
4. Explain how proportional representation and Article 48 (the ‘suicide clause’) resulted in
serious weaknesses in democracy for Germany. (pp104 – 105 C, R&H)
Even before the constitution of the new republic was drawn up, the regime faced the first of
three putsches in five years.
The Spartacist Revolt – Dec 1918 – Jan 1919
5.
Describe briefly what happened and explain in detail how this revolt weakened the
Weimar Republic. (p105 C, R&H)
The Kapp Putsch – March 1920
6. Describe briefly what happened and explain in detail how this revolt weakened the
Weimar Republic. (pp105 - 106 C, R&H)
The Munich Putsch (aka the Beerhall Putsch or the Nazi Putsch)- Nov 1923
7. Describe briefly what happened and explain in detail how this revolt weakened the
Weimar Republic. (pp108 C, R&H)
Three major revolts in such a short space of time seriously weakened the authority of the
Weimar Republic. The new regime had enemies on both sides of the political spectrum.
13
Economic Difficulties –
the Hyper Inflation of 1923 and the Great Depression of 1929
The Weimar Republic faced a political and economic disaster when French and Belgian
troops invaded and occupied the Ruhr in January 1923.
The Occupation of the Ruhr – Jan 1923
8. Explain why the French and Belgians occupied the Ruhr and what the reaction of the
Weimar government was to this. (p106 C, R&H)
Hyper-inflation 1923
9. Explain why the occupation of the Ruhr led to hyper-inflation and why this led to
unpopularity for the Weimar Republic. (pp106 – 107C, R&H)
Analysis - However, the Nazis did not come to power in 1923, the Nazi putsch failed and
Hitler ended up in prison. Therefore, there must have been factors other than the
weaknesses of the Weimar Republic that led to the rise of the Nazis.
Indeed during the so-called Golden Years of the Weimar Republic the regime recovered,
both politically and economically.
The Golden Years – 1924 - 1929
10. Explain Germany’s recovery during this period. Make sure that you mention
Stresemann, the Ruhr, the Rentenmark, the Dawes Plan, Locarno and the League of
Nations. (pp109 – 110 C, R&H)
Analysis - By 1928 there was almost no inflation in Germany; German industries were
booming and the level of unemployment was low. Germany had also been accepted as a
“civilised nation”, by the other European democracies. During this time there was little
support for the extreme political parties.
11. How many seats did the Nazis win in the 1928 Reichstag elections?
12. What did Hitler call the ‘Golden Years’?
14
The Great Depression
However, in October 1929 two events happened that had devastating consequences for
Weimar Germany. Firstly Gustav Stresemann died, depriving Germany of her most capable
politician and, secondly, the American Stock market on Wall Street crashed.
This resulted in the collapse of American banks and businesses and eventually a world-wide
economic depression. Germany was hit particularly badly as the German economy was so
reliant on American loans. When these loans dried up the short-lived economic recovery of
the Golden Years was over. German industries, businesses and exports collapsed. The net
result of this economic catastrophe was massive unemployment in Germany.
13. How many German were unemployed by 1932?
During these extreme times, the moderate political parties, such as the Centre Party and the
SPD could offer no quick solutions to Germany’s problems, but the extreme parties
apparently could. Consequently, more and more Germans voted for the Nazis and the KPD
(communists).
14. What were the 1930 election results for the Nazis and the KPD and what position did
this give the Nazis in the Reichstag?
15. What was the July 1932 election result for the Nazis and what position did this give the
party in the Reichstag?
15
The Appeal of the Nazis after 1928
The Nazis, unlike most of the other parties had a broad appeal, across all the social classes.
16. Explain the electoral success of the Nazis, under the following headings:








Fear of communism
Promises of quick solutions to Germany’s economic problems
The Führer Principle
Foreign policies
Anti-Semitism
Effective propaganda
Financial backing
Social and economic divisions/wide electoral appeal
The Role of Hitler
There is no doubt that much of the Nazis’ rise to power can be attributed to the leadership of
Adolf Hitler.
17. Summarise Hitler’s strengths under the following headings:
Hitler’s war record
Hitler’s skill in organising the party
Hitler’s oratory and charisma
Indeed, Hitler stood against Hindenburg in the 1932 Presidential Election. He did not win,
but he came a very respectable second to Hindenburg (venerable war hero and President
1923 – 32)
18. How many votes did Hindenburg and Hitler receive in the 1932 presidential election?
16
The Weaknesses and Mistakes of Opponents
The inherent weaknesses of the Weimar constitution made a united opposition to the Nazis
difficult. However there are other reasons why none of the other German political parties
effectively opposed the Nazis’ rise to power.
19. Explain how the left-wing parties (the KPD and the SPD), which would have been the
natural enemies of the Nazis, were permanently split after the Spartacist Revolt:
Other reasons for a lack of effective opposition the Nazis:

Although the KPD attracted considerable support in Reichstag elections, German
Communists did not make a determined attempt to protect democracy in Germany
because their master in Moscow, Stalin, had ordered them to help bring down the
Weimar Republic in order to pave the way for a workers’ revolution.

The Social Democrats (SPD) were the main supporters of the Weimar Republic, yet
they did not effectively oppose the Nazis because their leaders were unwilling to use
force and were weary and dispirited by bickering within the party and falling support
for the party during the Great Depression.

The right-wing parties (the D.V.P. and the D.N.V.P.) were largely sympathetic to the
Nazis, therefore did not oppose them.

Gustav Stresemann died in the same month as the Wall Street Crash and his death
deprived the Republic of its strongest and most able defender.

Until the late 1920s the Nazis were not viewed as a serious threat to democracy.
Until 1930 they had little popular support and their ambitions and policies were
underestimated and misunderstood.
17
The ‘Fatal Error’ of 1933
Although the Nazis did not have an overall majority, they were the largest party in the
Reichstag by July 1932 and, by rights, Hitler should have been appointed Chancellor at this
point. However, President Hindenburg did not trust Hitler and was reluctant to appoint him
Chancellor. Therefore another election was called for November 1932.
20. What were the November 1932 election results for the Nazis?
The Nazis were still the biggest party, but the Nazi support was beginning to decline.
However, by this point, Weimar democracy was in chaos. In 1932 alone there had been 60
presidential decrees (using Article 48). A series of Chancellors – Bruning, Von Schleicher
and Von Papen had been unsuccessful in leading unstable Reichstag coalitions. The SPD,
which had been the main party in almost all of the Reichstag coalitions, eventually left
government when unemployment benefit was cut.
At this point Franz Von Papen, who had been Chancellor himself, persuaded a reluctant
Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor.
21. When was Hitler appointed Chancellor?
There were only three Nazis in the new cabinet of twelve and Von Papen was ViceChancellor. Von Papen was confident that he could control the supposedly inexperienced
and naïve Hitler. He boasted – ‘we have hired him’ and ‘within two months we will have
pushed Hitler so far into the corner that he’ll squeak’.
Clearly Von Papen was wrong as, two months later, a Nazi dictatorship was established with
the passing of the Enabling Act.
18
The Nazis in Power
1933 - 1939
Issue 6 - An evaluation of the reasons why the Nazis were able to stay in power, 1933–39
On 30th January 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as the Chancellor (Prime
Minister) of Germany. Hitler was in a very weak position:
 Von Papen, the deputy Chancellor was an experienced politician and believed that he
could control the politically naïve Hitler.
 There were twelve ministers in the cabinet, but only two were Nazis.
 The Nazis did not control a majority in the Reichstag, having gained only 33% of the
votes and 196 seats in the last election (Nov. 1932).
 Hindenburg had appointed Hitler and could dismiss him at any time.
However, in a matter of months the Nazis had established a one-party state and, with
Hindenburg’s death in 1934 and Hitler’s appointment as Führer, the Nazi dictatorship was
complete.
The Third Reich, as the Nazi regime is known, didn’t last for the 1000 years that Hitler had
planned; but it did survive until 1945, when Germany was defeated in the Second World
War.
So how did the Nazis establish complete control of Germany and what impact did Nazi rule
have on the German people? In this topic we will look at:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The creation of a Nazi dictatorship/totalitarian state
Gleichschaltung and social control
Fear and state terrorism
Propaganda
Nazi foreign, economic and social policies
The crushing of opposition
19
Nazi Dictatorship
The Establishment of a Totalitarian State
From the very inception of the regime the Nazis consolidated their power. Less than a
month after Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor came the first opportunity.
The Reichstag Fire – 27 February 1933
1. Describe brieflythe Reichstag Fire
2. Explain the terms of the Decree for the Protection of the People and State, which was
passed on the night of the fire
The March Election - 5 March 1933
3. Describe briefly the March election, indicating whether it was free and fair. Also give
the result for the Nazis. (Page 115 C, R&H)
The Enabling Act - 23 March 1933
4. Explain how the Act was passed and what it did.
The Other Political Parties.
5. Describe the process by which Germany became a one-party state. (Page 115 C, R&H)
The Night of the Long Knives - 30th June 1934
6. Explain how Hitler eliminated internal enemies from within the Nazi Party. (Page 116 C,
R&H)
Führer – August 1934
7. Explain the death of Hindenburg, and how Hitler became Führer. (Page 118 C, R&H)
Thus, only a year and a half after Hitler had been appointed Chancellor, he was Führer of a
one-party state, with virtually unlimited political power.
Next, the Nazis took control of all state and national institutions. This process was known
as the Gleichschaltung (Co-ordination).
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Gleichschaltung and Social Control
8. Explain how the Nazis took control of the following organisations and institutions:
Trade Unions (Page 115 C, R&H)
The Civil Service (Page 118 C, R&H)
The Police
The Courts (Page 119 C, R&H)
The Army (See your notes on the Night of the Long Knives)
Local Government (Page 118 C, R&H ‘The States’)
Education and Youth Organisations (Page 119 - 20 C, R&H)
The Churches (Page 119 C, R&H)
Fear and State Terrorism
9. Explain how the Nazis created a police state and used terror to maintain their regime.
Mention:
1. The Gestapo and the use of informers. (Ref: ‘Nazis: A Warning from History’)
2. The SS and concentration camps. (Page 117 C, R&H)
3. The example of Germany’s Jews. (Page 117 C, R&H)
Propaganda
10. Make notes on how the Nazis used propaganda to maintain control sing the Prezi
‘Propaganda’
Nazi Foreign, Economic and Social Policies
The Nazi regime existed and was maintained not solely through dictatorship and terror. any
of the Nazis’ policies were popular and the regime had a great deal of genuine support from
many of the German people.
11. Explain why the following policies were popular:
Economic and Social Policies
Full Employment (Page 120 - 121 C, R&H)
State Socialism and KdF (Page 121 - 122 C, R&H)
Autarky
Foreign Policies
Mention: reparations, re-armament, Rhineland, Anschluss, Lebensraum
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The Crushing of Opposition
There were several reasons for the lack of opposition to the Nazi regime:
1. Organized opposition to the Nazis quickly became almost impossible. Within
months of coming to power the Nazis had created a one-party state and their policy
of Gleichschaltung meant they dominated national institutions and organs of the
state. They arrested political opponents (especially leading socialists and
communists) and trade union leaders. In addition, the Gestapo created a police state.
Even so, individual Communists resisted the Nazis – ‘despite chaos among the
leadership … despite betrayal and torture, thousands of dedicated Communists
accepted terror and torture – at a time when little thought was given to
resistance ion Germany or abroad.’ And ‘After 1936, all that was left was the
self-sacrificing resistance of individuals, and minute groups.’ – Bracher.
2. Of course, many Germans were happy to accept Hitler’s rule. At least the Nazis
provided strong government. ‘The ineffectiveness and failure of German
resistance to Nazism had its roots in the strife-torn political climate of the
Weimar Republic’ – Kershaw.
3. Also, many Germans, having grown up in the Kaiser’s Germany, adopted and
simply accepted the new regime – ‘traditional attitudes towards state authority
imposed an inner inhibition’ – Bracher.
4. Army generals, who could have overthrown Hitler, were won over by rearmament
and the removal of Röhm (who had wanted the Army and the SA to be
amalgamated).
5. The Protestant and Catholic churches tended not to oppose the Nazis – one
reason being that the Nazis had crushed Germany’s communists. Yet some brave
Christians did oppose the Nazis. For instance, Jehovah’s witnesses refused to accept
Nazism and many were executed or imprisoned in concentration camps. A
Protestant minister, Pastor Paul Schneider, declared that Hitler was an agent of the
Devil. Schneider was arrested, tortured and killed by lethal injections.
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