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Canada – United States relations
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Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper (right) and US President Barack Obama (left) meet in
Ottawa in February 2009
Relations between Canada and the United States have spanned more than two centuries. This
includes a shared British colonial heritage, warfare during the 1770s and 1812, and the eventual
development of one of the most successful international relationships in the modern world. Each
is the other's chief economic partner and large-scale tourism and migration between the two
nations has increased the similarities.
The most serious breach in the relationship was the War of 1812, which saw an American
invasion of then British North America and counter-invasions from British-Canadian forces. The
border was demilitarized after the war and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful.
Military collaboration began during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War on
both a bilateral basis through NORAD and through multilateral participation in NATO. A high
volume of trade and migration between the United States and Canada has generated closer ties,
especially after the signing of North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994.
Canada and the United States are currently the world's largest trading partners,[1] share the
world's longest border,[2] and have significant interoperability within the defence sphere. Recent
difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for
the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism.
The foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War and after.
Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the
Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terrorism. A serious diplomatic debate is whether the
Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian jurisdiction.
There are close cultural ties between modern day Canada and the United States, advanced in
large part because both nations predominately speak English. There are also historical ties
between the respective Francophone populations. Pop culture has depicted and parodied the
efforts of both nations to solidify their cultural uniqueness-- primarily by Canada, as its
population and economy are roughly one tenth that of the United States'-- to deter international
perception that Americans and Canadians are virtually identical. Canada remains Americans'
favorite foreign nation according to a recent Gallup poll.[3] Nevertheless there remain Canadian
fears of being overwhelmed by its neighbour. James Tagg reports that Canadian university
students have a profound fear that "Canadian culture, and likely Canadian sovereignty, will be
overwhelmed."[4] The two economies have increasingly merged since the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994. Meanwhile co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease
of the flow of goods services and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as
the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to
Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on
everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian
assemblage.[5]
[edit] Mingling of peoples
From the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and
American populations, with large movements in both directions.[11]
New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during
the American Revolution.[12] At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of
the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south
of Montreal. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into
Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario). In the mid and late 19th
century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia (Cariboo, Fraser
gold rushes) and later to the Yukon. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the
Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest. Many Mennonites
immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went
north to form communities in Alberta after the Mormon Church rejected plural marriage.[13] The
1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.[14]
In the late 19th and early 20th century about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with
395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they
formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century they had abandoned the French
language, but most kept the Catholic religion.[15] About twice as many English Canadians came
to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.[16]
Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while while
ultimately heading to the U.S. In 1851-1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from
Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.[17]
[edit] American Revolution
An editorial cartoon on Canada – United States relations, 1886
At the outset of the American Revolution, the American revolutionaries hoped the French
Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were
pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was
invaded during the American Revolutionary War, thousands joined the American cause and
formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined
the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined
their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable
Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern
possessions; in 1777 a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire
British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French
Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.[18] After the war Canada became a
refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by
Patriot reprisals to do so.
Among the original Loyalists there were 3500 free blacks. Most went to Nova Scotia and in
1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist
owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Before
1860, about 30,000-40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were
escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.[19]
[edit] War of 1812
The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts
south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to
provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in
1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Thomas
Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to republicanism in the United
States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the
United States at the time.
Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared
war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high
seas and seizure ("Impressment") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions
against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio
and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American "honor" was an implicit issue. The
Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, and so a land invasion of
Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on
the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native
American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's
coalition of tribes. The U.S. strategy in 1812 was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of
forcing concessions from the British Empire. There was some hope that settlers in western
Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S. --would welcome the chance to
overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were incompetent and were
defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada
(Ontario) militia. Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814-15 were
poorly handled and the British retreated, leaving both sides about where they were in 1812. With
the collapse of Napoleon, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of
the Indian tribes that threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was neither side had
anything to fight over, and the war ended by a treaty that took effect in February 1815.
The King's Own was one of the units who marched into Washington. In retaliation for the
torching of Upper Canada's capital York (now called Toronto), and to disgrace President
Madison, they set fire to the president's residence on August 24, 1814, burning down the White
House.
In later years, Canadians, who remain loyal to the Empire well into the 20th century, viewed the
War of 1812 as a successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a
people. A common theme ever since has been the fear that Canadian culture needs protection
from American influence.
[edit] Alabama claims
At the end of the American Civil War, Americans were angry at British support for the
Confederacy. One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack
Canada. More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the
notion that British involvement had lengthened the war. Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman
of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or
alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States. When American Secretary of State
William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a
comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm
believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward
expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this
in exchange for the Alabama claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was
to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the
dropping the damage claims. The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with
American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining
forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American
commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a
cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside
the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans
showed little interest in territorial expansion. The "Alabama Claims" dispute went to
international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872
supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million. Britain paid and the
episode ended in peaceful relations.[20][21]
[edit] Dominion of Canada
A Canadian Mountie and a U.S. Border Patrol Agent in 1941
Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled
diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in
which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the
disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of
Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of
small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans
across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The
American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American
Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of
diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the
tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama
Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in
Britain and sold to the Confederacy.
Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in
the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.
[edit] Alaska boundary
Much more controversial was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States
in 1903. At issue was the exact boundary between Alaska and Canada, specifically whether
Canada would have a port near the present American town of Haines that would give access to
the new Yukon goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted
with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that
Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with
Canada.[22]
1907 saw a minor controversy over USS Nashville sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada
without Canadian permission. Partly in response, in 1909 the two sides signed the International
Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the
Great Lakes.
Economic ties and migration had deepened by this era, but were not equal. In 1901 there were
128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million
Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).[23]
[edit] Canadian autonomy
Canada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the
Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire.
Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s. Its
first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927. Canada became an
active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none
of which included the U.S.
Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the
new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported
from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and
moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.-Canadian trade fell 75% as
the Great Depression dragged both countries down.[24][25]
In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on American cities and for
forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrive. Through the later
1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the
British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red. Canadian defence
was organized against an American invasion until the onset of World War II.
[edit] World War II
The two nations cooperated closely in World War II,[26] as both nations saw new levels of
prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers. Prime Minister William Lyon
Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes
of their predecessors.[27] They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling
for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defence (PJBD).
King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant
conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out
of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.
Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the
atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces
through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S.
in 1940-42.[28]
American attempts in the mid 1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast
military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's
vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an
eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss
of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the
PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.[29]
[edit] Newfoundland
The United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time a British crown colony.
The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's
business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic
Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after
hotly contested referenda. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of
Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American
option on the Newfoundland referendum.
[edit] Cold War
Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their
previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the
United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States
during the Cold War.
[edit] Nixon Shock 1971
The United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy
became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the
United States enacted the "Nixon Shock" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all
imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the articulation
of Prime Minister Trudeau's "Third Option" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and
downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa,
Nixon declared the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States dead.[30]
[edit] Issues of Americanization
Since the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s,
historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of Americanization. In the War of
1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected,
according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), "the fear of Americanization."[31] Scholars have traced
this attitude over time in Ontario and Québec.[32] Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that
it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the
attractions of the U.S. are strongest.[33] Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of
Québec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing
anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.[34] In recent times
surveys have shown that 60 percent of Quebecers have a fear of Americanization, while other
surveys show they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of
health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism
and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent
disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more
likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.[35] However, there is evidence that
the elites and Québec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to
economic integration than the general public.[36]
[edit] Defence and international conflict
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne
Mountain Operations Center in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and
the U.S.
The Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought along side the United States
in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the
Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the
Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some
brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.
American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.[37]
The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation
on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian
military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of
the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). There is also an active military
exchange program between the two countries under which Canadian Forces personnel have been
involved in Iraq.[citation needed] Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been
a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold
War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle
groups.
[edit] War in Afghanistan
Main article: Canada's role in the invasion of Afghanistan
Canada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida
attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation
Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot Bombed Canadian forces
involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint AmericanCanadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot
interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing"
his field tactical decision.[38][39] Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the
International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational
command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the
Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has
also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf
Multinational Interdiction Force.[40]
The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations web site named
CanadianAlly.com, which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of
Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror".
The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed
opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent
with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.
[edit] 2003 Invasion of Iraq
See also: Canada and the Iraq War and Canada and Iraq War resisters
According to contemporary polls, the majority of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion
of Iraq. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as
many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama),[41] made a policy distinction between
conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a
"Global war on terror".
[edit] Trade
Main article: Canada – United States trade relations
Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities
of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canadian–American
Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two
countries.
With such a massive trading relationship, trade disputes between the two countries are frequent
and inevitable. In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on
Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy,
a claim which Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and
arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian
cultural "restrictions" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board
of Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of
Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent
cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over
aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.[citation needed]
One ongoing and complex trade issue involves the importation of cheaper prescription drugs
from Canada to the United States. Due to the Canadian government's price controls as part of
their state-run medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by
consumers in the unregulated American market. While laws in the United States have been
passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed
their own legislation to allow the trade to continue. American drug companies—often supporters
of political campaigns—have come out against the practice.
According to a 2007 study commissioned by the Canadian Embassy in the United States,
[edit] Environmental issues
The two countries work closely to resolve trans-border environmental issues, an area of
increasing importance in the bilateral relationship. A principal instrument of this cooperation is
the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of
1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation
in controlling trans-border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most
recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans
who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project. The two
governments also consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution. Under the Air Quality
Agreement of 1991, both countries have made substantial progress in coordinating and
implementing their acid rain control programs and signed an annex on ground level ozone in
2000. Despite this trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results
from coal fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States.
Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time
scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the
agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian
government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental
groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.
[edit] Illicit drugs
In 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian
government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S.
Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, "We would have to respond. We would
be forced to respond."[43] However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the
liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.
[edit] Arar affair
Main article: Maher Arar
On September 26, 2002, U.S. officials, acting upon a tip from Canadian law enforcement,
detained Maher Arar on suspicion of terrorist links. Arar is a dual citizen of Canada and Syria
and was traveling through New York as part of a trip from Tunisia to Canada.
Despite traveling on a Canadian passport, Arar was deported to Syria, his country of birth. He
was imprisoned there for over a year and tortured repeatedly. The decision by U.S. officials to
deport him to Syria, his imprisonment and torture there, and the extent of collaboration between
U.S. and Canadian officials became a political issue in Canada at the time.
Canadian officials have since said that Arar was not linked in any way to terrorism, and the
Canadian Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, has issued a formal apology and a $10.5 million
(CAD) settlement to Arar, who nonetheless remains on an American terrorist watchlist.
[edit] Diplomacy
Former Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean (right) and U.S. President Barack Obama
meet in Ottawa in February 2009.
[edit] Views over time of Presidents and Prime Ministers
Presidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the
diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians
since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.

Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election
(fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), denied Tory allegations
that he wanted to amalgamate with the U.S. saying: "As for myself, my course is clear. A
British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my
latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and
mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance." - , Feb 3, 1891.[44]

Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately
complained to his wife: "These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in
existence." - [45]

After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President
Harry S. Truman said in 1947: "Canada and the United States have reached the point
where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries." [46]

President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961, with Canada a valued
NATO ally: "Geography has made us neighbours. History has made us friends.
Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature
hath so joined together, let no man put asunder."[47]

President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme appropriate to the
occasion: "We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give
thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our
neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada." Remarks at
Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.[48]

Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau often called up the old metaphor that being America's
neighbour, "is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered
the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt."[49][50]

Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy,
warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed "a
danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point
of view."[51]

President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau,
declared that the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States was dead.
"It is time for us to recognize," he stated, "that we have very separate identities; that we
have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities
are obscured."[52]

In late 2001, President George W. Bush neglected to mention Canada during a speech in
which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of
September 11th. Canada had provided military, financial and other support, as well as aid
for stranded travelers.

Prime Minister Harper in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration
insisted there was indeed a "special relationship," stating: "The United States remains
Canada’s most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look
forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this
special relationship."[53]

President Barack Obama speaking in Ottawa, Ontario at his first official international
visit February 19, 2009: "I love this country. We could not have a better friend and
ally."[54]
[edit] Territorial disputes
See also: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
These include maritime boundary disputes:





Dixon Entrance
Beaufort Sea
Strait of Juan de Fuca
San Juan Islands
Machias Seal Island and North Rock
Territorial land disputes:



Aroostook War (Maine boundary)
Alaska Boundary Dispute
Pig War
and disputes over the international status of the:


Northwest Passage
Inside Passage
[edit] Arctic disputes
A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian
sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada’s assertion that
the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other
countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait
(international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker
Manhattan through the Northwest Passage without Canadian permission in 1969, followed by
the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a diplomatic incident. In 1970, the
Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian
regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970
stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal
waters of Canada…. Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for
United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an
agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will
be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not
alter either country's basic legal position. In January 2006 David Wilkins, the American
ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy
military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those
waters.[55] In August 2007, former US ambassador to Canada, Paul Cellucci, stated that in 2005
he informed his government that it should re-evaluate its assertion that the Northwest Passage is
an international sea body, and that it should belong to Canada. His advice was rejected and in
2007 Bush and Harper took opposite positions.[56]
[edit] Common memberships
UKUSA Community
Australia
Canada
New Zealand
United Kingdom
United States of America
Canada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations
such as:
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Arctic Council
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Food and Agriculture Organization
G-8
G-10
G-20 major economies
International Chamber of Commerce
International Development Association
International Monetary Fund
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International Olympic Committee
Interpol
North American Free Trade Agreement
North American Aerospace Defense Command
North American Numbering Plan
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Organization of American States
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America
UKUSA Community
United Nations
UNESCO
World Health Organization
World Trade Organization
World Bank
[edit] The current state of relations
Shortly after being congratulated by then U.S. President George W. Bush for his victory in
February 2006, Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper rebuked U.S. Ambassador to Canada
David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the
Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces. Harper's first meeting with the former U.S. President
occurred at the end of March 2006; and while little was achieved in the way of solid agreements,
the trip was described in the media as signaling a trend of closer relations between the two
nations.
Prime Minister Harper called and congratulated the then President-elect, Barack Obama, on his
victory over John McCain, and he assured the President-elect that the two countries will become
the greatest of allies. After he was inaugurated, on January 20, 2009, as President of the United
States, it was announced that Mr. Obama's first international trip would be to Canada, which
took place on February 19, 2009.[57]