Download Bacon Latosha Bacon Chapter 8: Biological Bases of Learning and

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Latosha Bacon
Chapter 8: Biological Bases of Learning and Memory
ITEC 8134
Theories and Models of Instructional Design
Dr. Hodges
October 23, 2011
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Chapter Summary
Chapter 8 of Driscoll’s Psychologoy of Learning for Instruction assesses how biology affects
learning and memory. The affects are broken into two categories: evolution and
neurophysiology. Evolution has an effect on conditioning and cognition and is considered the
ultimate or main cause of learning and memory. Neurophysiology is the proximate cause of
learning and memory. The underlying causes of neurophysiology’s impact on learning and
memory are attention and the brain; learning, memory and the brain; and cognitive
development and the brain.
Evolution
The concept of evolution is rooted in Charles Darwin’s work, Origin of Species. Two
important points are offered. The first point is human history is not as long as we tend to think
of it being. Therefore, our psychological makeup is based upon historical perspective rather
than present day. Secondly, evolutionary adaptations are functional and specific. Every
process we experience was designed to serve a purpose. (Driscoll, 2005)
Evolution and Conditining
Evolution and conditioning reflect the age old psychology debate nature vs. nurture,
what we are born knowing vs. what our environment teaches us. Alan Skinner’s belief that
learning occurs in the same way for all species is debated and tested once again. Driscoll (2005)
claims that there is evidence to suggest that classical and operant conditions are subject to
biological influences. Her reasoning is based on the study conducted by Garcia and Koelling.
Their research on taste aversion gives a closer look at how rats regarded pain and illness. Rats
avoided the liquid that caused illness, but continued to drink that which caused pain.
This is considered an adaptive or conditioned mechanism for survival.
Evolution and Cognition
The cognitive implication for learning and memory relates strongly with learning from the
mistakes of others. The Darwinian algorithms, developed by Cosmides and her colleagues, are
psychological adaptations that have occurred in cognition over evolutionary time. Simply put,
we have adapted reasoning and mechanisms based upon what our ancestors have experienced.
Driscoll believes that our understanding of ancestral environmental conditions assists us in
gaining clues to the nature of human cognitive mechanisms (2005). However, Piaget focused on
the genetic influence on cognition. He believed that the process associated with cognitive
development is as important as the process of evolutionary change. Piaget’s beliefs are
considered lacking due to his oversight of social structures.
Implications of Evolutionary Psychology for Learning and Instruction
This section of the chapter concludes that our genetic, evolutionary heritage imposes certain
constraints on learning, or determines predispositions to learn certain things in a certain way.
Ultimately, what is learned and exhibited depends as much on particular environmental stimuli
as it does on genetic history. Once again, no clear resolution of the nature vs. nurture conflict
can be offered.
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Neurophysiology
The study of the brain and its functions has grown by leaps and bounds. Scientists have studied
and gained a greater understanding of the brain’s structures and functions, yet there is much to
learn about the way we learn.
Attention and the Brain
Attention is the focus of learning. In order to teach a student a skill or lesson, their attention
must first be acquired. In this chapter, the author states that attention involves selectivity.
Attention is divided into three categories: state, resource, and process. Attention, the state, is
occurs when there is an expectation of learning by learners who are interested in the content
or the opposite, those who are easily distracted. The resource form of attention is based on the
learner’s ability to focus on one of many different things taking place. The third and final form
of attention, process, is choosing a particular thing to evaluate instead of others.
The two disorders that lack pathological findings are schizophrenia and hyperactivity. The
behavior people with those disorders resemble that of patients with frontal lobe damage. This
means that the person is aware that he or she should have a different response to the stimuli
than what he or she is presenting, but cannot correct the response. Possible causes are
delayed maturation of the frontal lobe or a disruption in catecholamine metabolism. Increased
and decreased levels of catecholamine result in attention disorders.
Our ability to pay attention to particular information or process a certain number of tasks also
deals with capacity. How much can a person process at one time with experiencing an
overload? Even computers slow down or freeze when too many windows are open. At this
point, we press ctrl+alt+del to reach the task manager. The task manager gives us the option to
end tasks that are not responding so that we may work with the ones that are or end all tasks
and start from scratch. Our brains work in the same manner. Learning which biological
mechanisms govern attentional limitations may assist us in determining how to make the most
of the capacity we have (Driscoll, 2005).
When learners not only allocate attentional resources to a particular task, but also then direct
those resources to selectively process certain information, they are organizing their attention
(Driscoll, 2005). Researchers study brain mapping and eye movement to study the
organization of attention. Perhaps, this is the reason teachers continuously require students to
look at them and make eye contact. Over time, we have equated eye contact with paying
attention and categorizing information. However, studies show that other strategies must take
place in order to maintain student attention throughout instruction.
Learning, Memory, and the Brain
In the beginning, researchers focused on one form of learning and memory, information
storage. As time progressed, an increase in the interest of how the brain works popularized.
The next hot topic in research became normal and damaged brains. The focus finally shifted to
language and how it is used once it is acquired.
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Types of Memory Systems
The major systems of memory outlined by Schacter and Tulving, outlines five systems of
memory. They include: procedural, perceptual representation, semantic, primary, and episodic.
The retrieval of two forms of memory, primary and episodic, is explicit, while the others are
implicit. Episodic memory is the only form that does not have a subsystem.
Biological Basis for Language Learning
Based on Eric Lenneberg’s biological view of language, it was decided that learning and memory
can be predicated on language. Lenneberg believed that language can neither be suppressed
nor can language learning be speeded up , and that certain forms of speech disorders are
inheritable (Driscoll, 2005). The mistakes avoided in language acquisition, and the fact that
language learners speak nouns first and verbs later leads researchers to believe that language
learning is biological. Not only is it biological, but it is likely based on maturation. This is
believed to be true because deaf children learn gestures at the same rate as speaking children
learn spoken words.
Cognitive Development and the Brain
Once again the question arises: To what extent is cognitive development biologically or
environmentally determined? Fixed circuitry, critical periods, plasticity, and modularity are
examined to help us understand the impact cognitive development has on the brain.
Fixed circuitry and Critical Periods
The first argument regarding fixed circuitry is how soon the circuitry is fixed. The opinion
varies depending upon who is being asked. Some say between the ages of eight and ten; others
say between eighteen and twenty years of age. Once the determination is made regarding the
time line, the next step to take is testing to see which pieces are missing so interventions can
take place to recover what was lost.
Plasticity
Studies conducted on animals concluded that animals raised in enriched environments
showed increased weight, dendritic branching, and the size of synaptic contacts. Though the
study of the human brain is more difficult, it is believed that providing children with enriched
activities early in life will enhance cognitive abilities. On the flip side of the coin, plasticity
decreases with age, which simply means that the older learner’s ability to learn in a flexible
manner is less than younger learners.
Modularity
Not every person learns in the same way. Not only is this true, but individuals also
possess various intelligences. Each intelligence deals with various areas of the brain. Thusly,
learning takes place at a greater or lesser rate according to the type of intelligence each person
possesses.
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Instructional Design Implications for Practice
When it comes to ensuring that information is noticed so that it can be memorized, one of the
first steps an instructional designer must take is following Gagne’s nine events of instruction.
Using the first step, gaining attention, will prove beneficial when providing instruction. When
designing instruction, make certain that the information is presented in chunks that can be
related to prior knowledge. Further, following the ARCS motivational design may foster
improved attention among disinterested or attention deficit students. Further, the design
needs to include activities that are rich in experiences that learners may not have an access to
on their own to enhance their cognitive development.
As a teacher, I try to play close attention to students as they reach varying levels of learning.
When information is well learned, students should be engaged in high-level tasks instead of
practicing the same skill repeatedly. Employ various learning strategies to maintain student
attention. Allowing students to express their knowledge of the concept in various forms has
been a part of my practices for a while, but differentiated instruction elevated it to another
level. When each individual is given an opportunity to express their knowledge in a different
way, the instruction becomes more interesting and less threatening. Using tests to measure a
student’s knowledge of the content leaves so many students at a disadvantage and minimizes
their opportunities for success. I also try to provide instruction that addresses the varying forms
of intelligence for each type of learner