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FINAL DRAFT
BANGLADESH NATIONAL
CONSERVATION STRATEGY
Volume 2: Part I
Introduction and Bangladesh Environment
Ministry of Environment and Forest
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 A PRIMER ON ENVIRONMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ... 1
1.1.2 ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 CONSERVATION ............................................................................................................ 3
1.1.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................... 3
1.2 GLOBAL AND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
FACING BANGLADESH ................................................................................................ 4
1.3 THREATENED BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS ............................................. 4
1.3.1 RISING POPULATION AND CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES ........................................... 4
1.3.2 DESERTIFICATION AND DEFORESTATION ..................................................................... 5
1.3.3 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: GREEN HOUSE GASES AND OZONE LAYER DEPLETION . 6
1.3.4 TRANS-BOUNDARY POLLUTION AND THE SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES.......... 9
1.3.5 LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL LOSS .......................................................................... 9
1.3.6 WETLAND DEGRADATION .......................................................................................... 10
1.3.7 URBAN GROWTH......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.8 DISASTERS .................................................................................................................. 11
1.4 BANGLADESH’S COMMITMENT TO INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND
EFFORTS CONCERNING ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................... 12
2.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 FLOODPLAIN SOILS ..................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2 HILL SOILS .................................................................................................................. 20
2.2.3 TERRACE SOILS........................................................................................................... 20
2.3 CLIMATE AND WEATHER ........................................................................................ 23
2.4 PLANTS AND ANIMALS .............................................................................................. 24
2.4.1 PLANTS ....................................................................................................................... 24
2.4.2 ANIMALS ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.5 ECOSYSTEMS OF IMPORTANCE ............................................................................ 26
2.5.1 HILL FORESTS ............................................................................................................. 26
2.5.2 THE SUNDARBAN ........................................................................................................ 28
2.5.3 COASTAL ECOSYSTEM ................................................................................................ 30
2.5.4 JINJIRADWIP CORAL ISLAND....................................................................................... 33
2.5.6 MADHUPUR TRACT ..................................................................................................... 40
2.5.7 WETLANDS.................................................................................................................. 42
2.6 HISTORY AND CULTURE .......................................................................................... 44
2.6.1 HISTORY ..................................................................................................................... 44
2.6.2 CULTURE ..................................................................................................................... 45
2.7 NEED FOR A NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY OF BANGLADESH 48
2.7.1 CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH .................................. 48
2.7.4 THE FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1997-2002) .................................................................. 49
2.7.3 INTERIM POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY PAPER (I-PRSP) ..................................... 49
2.7.4 WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (WSSD) .................................... 50
2.7.5 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS) .......................................................... 50
2.7.6 SYNERGY WITH OTHER KEY NATIONAL DOCUMENTS ................................................. 51
Bangladesh Environment 1
CHAPTER 1
Environment, Development and Conservation
Bangladesh in A Global Perspective
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Concerns and discussion about environment, conservation and sustainable development have moved
center stage both globally and regionally. Bangladesh, as an active and informed member of the global
community, has consistently kept herself abreast of, and responded to the global trends and
developments. This chapter attempts to locate Bangladesh within the context of global and regional
environmental challenges. We initiate the discussion by focusing on the primary concepts of
environment, conservation and sustainable development. Subsequently, Bangladesh’s experience and
status vis-à-vis the major global and regional environmental problems and challenges are summarized.
The third section sheds lights on Bangladesh’s commitment to international treaties and initiatives and
her efforts towards environmental conservation and sustainable development.
1.1.1 A PRIMER ON ENVIRONMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
The awareness of the environmental degradation and its linkage with the anthropogenic activities were
in the rise since 1950s in the developed world. Concerns were signaled about the widespread effect of
pollution on the environment, and the grim possibility of exhausting of the earth’s non-renewable
resources, viz., fossil fuels, metals, minerals, and growing population.
By the 1970s, the close
functional links and the inter-dependence between environmental conservation and development were
unequivocally established (Huq and Rahman 1994). In 1972, the first major world conference on
Human Environment was held in Stockholm where heads of states from all over the world came
together for the first time to consider the state of the earth. A special agency of the United Nations
named as United Nations Environment Program or UNEP was established to deal with the
environmental issues. The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) was conceived by the IUCN, WWF
and UNEP in 1980 as the means of providing a comprehensive, sector-wise analysis of conservation
and resource management issues, to integrate environmental concerns into development process:
“..because unless patterns of development that also conserve living resources are widely adopted, it
will become impossible to meet the needs of today without foreclosing the achievement of tomorrow”
2 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
(IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980). The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) was
established by the UN in the mid 1980s, more popularly known as Brundtland Commission. The
commission had a series of private consultation with the leaders, experts, government and the people in
different regions and published its landmark report called Our Common Future in 1987 (Huq and
Rahman 1994). Following the Brundtland Commission Report, the issues and concepts of sustainable
development has been adopted by the UN as well most of the countries and led to the UN General
Assembly resolution in 1989 to hold a World Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. The conference is also known as Earth Summit. In Rio over 110
heads of States or Government officially signed four documents: (i) the Rio Declaration, (ii) Agenda
21, (iii) the Framework Convention on Climate Change, and (iv) the Convention on Biodiversity
(CBD). All of which ushered all the nations to institutionalize sustainable development policies and
practices in the coming years (Nishat and Amin 2001, Carew-Reid et al. 1994). In the recent years, a
few other major international events have had a major influence on the global trends and efforts
towards environment, conservation and development. The World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002, put sustainable development at the center of the international
agenda. One major outcome was the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development, which is
an expression of renewed political commitment to protect the natural resources and the environment,
promote human development, and achieve universal prosperity and peace. In September 2000 the
leaders of over 180 governments paced sustainable development at the heart of the global agenda when
the United National Millennium Summit adopted the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), setting
targets for poverty reduction and environmental degradation (Haque 2003).
In light of the above background, it is imperative to briefly focus on the key concepts of environment,
conservation and sustainable development.
1.1.2 ENVIRONMENT
Environment is defined as the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an
organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival (Britannica 1993).
The Environment Conservation Act 1995 adopts the following definition: ‘Environment includes
water, air, land and physical properties and the inter-relationship which exists among and between
them and human beings, other living creatures, plants and micro-organism’.
The concept of
environment is nearly all encompassing with four major components: ‘abiotic’ (e.g. sun, water, soil,
gas), ‘biotic’ (e.g. plant and animal worlds), ‘consumers’ (human beings, livestock and other animal)
and ‘decomposers’ (bacteria, fungi, insects). The abiotic and biotic components of the environment
frequently interact in complex ways.
There are diverse perspectives and conceptualizations of
environment ranging from pure natural sciences and econometrics to broader interdisciplinary views
examining the interlocking effects between people and the surrounding environment (Chapman and
Reiss 1995).
Bangladesh Environment 3
1.1.3 CONSERVATION
Essentially, the term ‘conservation’ involves prevention of loss, waste destruction and management of
natural environment. The concept is broad based and may include any of various efforts to preserve or
restore the earth’s natural resources, including such measures as the protection of wildlife, the
maintenance of forest or wilderness areas, the control of air and water pollution, and the prudent use of
farmland, mineral deposits, and energy supplies. Conservation may also be viewed as the process
through which natural resources are managed to allow partial or total exploitation, for individual,
community or commercial use, without in any way jeopardizing the long-term viability of the resource
base or inflicting undue or excessive environmental damage (Khan 2001).
1.1.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The concept of sustainable development has different connotation and ramifications. One popular
perspective on sustainable development draws on the Bruntland Commission of 1987, which defines
sustainable Development as ‘development that meets the need of the present, without compromising the
ability of the future generation to meet their own needs’. This perspective warrants a holistic
development and accounts for the six dimensions of human welfare: social, economic, ecological,
political, cultural and spiritual, without letting any dimension unduly dominate the others. It recognizes
that each of these dimensions impact on one another, and all together determine the quality of human
lives. Another dominant view is to coin sustainable development as ‘broad-based development’. It is a
development that is broad in three respects. It is broad in the geographic sense, such that participation
and benefits are not skewed towards certain regions, especially the capital region and major urban
centers, but commensurately involves the rest of the countryside as well. It is broad in the sectoral
sense, such that all social groups and economic sectors are equitable participants in and beneficiaries of
development. And it is broad in the temporal, such that the welfare both the present and future
generations are well provided for, implying that it is a development that is ecologically sound (Habito
and Antonio 2000). Sustainable development is participatory development. It is sustainable because
the people who are its very beneficiaries have an active stake in its planning and implementation. The
people themselves work to ensure the Plan’s success, and it is they who actualize and monitor its
implementation. It is also a partnership-based development. It is built on mutually reinforcing efforts
and initiatives of the various stakeholders working in principled partnerships to achieve their
commonly-held goals. It is the spirit of partnership, shared values and complementary initiatives that
makes it firm and enduring (Habito and Antonio 2000). The other popular perspective on sustainable
development suggests that there are two pillars of sustainable development: respect for people and
concern for ecosystems. Development, it is argues, can be sustainable if : It improves the quality of life,
and It conserves the Earth’s vitality and diversity(IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991, Nishat and Amin 2001,
Nishat et al. undated).
4 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
1 . 2 G L O B A L A N D R E G I O N A L E N V I R O N M E N TA L I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
FA C I N G B A N G L A D E S H
Most of today’s major environmental problems and challenges transcend beyond national boundaries,
and manifest global impacts and implications. In this section, we consider some of the pressing global
and regional environmental issues that are of increasing concern to Bangladesh in line with many other
countries.
1 . 3 T H R E AT E N E D B I O D I VE R S I T Y A N D E C O S Y S T E M S
Biodiversity is the variability of all life forms, their levels and combinations on the earth. Millions of
species, including human beings, inhabit land, fresh water systems, hills and mountains, and seas and
oceans are part of the biodiversity. Ecosystems contain a vast range of interdependent plant, animal,
and micro- organism forms that support all life on earth. (Khan 2001). The biodiversity of ecosystems
in both developing and industrial countries is under threat through a combination of habitat destruction
and the selective removal and killing of individual species of plants and animals. Although scientists
believe that between 5 million and 30 million species exist on earth, only 1.6 million species have
actually been identified and named, and of these, the ecosystemic role and chemical properties of only
a small fraction are known. The pre-historic rate of extinction was about one species per year. Human
activities have increased this perhaps a thousand fold, just when advances in biochemistry have
allowed the use of the wealth inherent in genetic diversity in previously unimaginable ways.
Overloaded beyond certain thresholds, natural ecosystems collapse with alarming speed. Many changes
are irreversible. Habitat destruction and pollution now threaten ecosystems around the earth, leading to
changes that alter their natural and economic values, in many cases permanently.
With a large human population, Bangladesh is facing tremendous pressure on its natural resources, and
consequently the ecosystems are degrading together with a decline in the populations of various
species. It is estimated that Bangladesh’s bio-diversity includes approximately 5000 vascular plants,
750 birds, 125 mammals, 19 amphibians and 124 reptiles. Amongst them 39 animal species have been
identified as endangered, 50 species of vertebrates are nearly extinct while 35 species are under serious
threat (IUCN/UNDP, 1992). Over the last 100 years, Bangladesh has lost about 10% of its mammalian
fauna, 3% avifauna and 4% reptiles (Khan 1998).
1.3.1 RISING POPULATION AND CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES
With the passage of time population is on constant increase around the world. Between the period 1950
and 1985, some 2.3 billion (from 2.5 billion – 4.8 billion) people were added to the world population.
The projected world population for the year 2020 is 8.3 billion. It is noted that growth rate is
considerably higher in the developing regions than industrialized countries. With an average growth
rate of 2%, the developing regions contained about two-thirds of the world population during the year
1950. The remaining one third of the global population belong to the industrialized region with 1.3%
average rate of growth. An estimate suggests that the developing regions have taken the load of four-
Bangladesh Environment 5
fifths of the world population with an annual growth rate of just under 1.5% by the end of 1990s. As
compared to this, industrialized region will have only one-fifths of the global population with an
estimated annual growth rate of 0.5%.
Even within developing regions considerable variations exist in demographic trends: the fastest rates of
growth are found in Africa, followed by Latin America and then Asia. The bulk of Asia (particularly
China) has achieved dramatic declines in fertility. Along the same vein, the Total fertility Rate in
Bangladesh declined from 6.3 in 1975 to 3.3 in 1997-99. Accordingly, the population growth rate has
come down from 2.9% per annum in the mid 1970s to 1.5% in the late 1990s. The remarkable feature
of this rapid decline was that it has been achieved not only at a low level of income but also at a low
level of literacy. Despite these improvements, Bangladesh is still faced with formidable challenges.
Even with this growth rate the population of Bangladesh will reach 156 million in 2011. It should be
noted that Bangladesh was the eighth most populous in the world during the year 1999 with a total
population of 127 million.
High growth rates in developing countries are caused by both high fertility and the momentum created
by previous high growth. Thus even though fertility has declined in most developing countries, large
groups of women just entering or reach their reproductive years have already been born, ensuring that
birth rates will continue to be high for quite a while. The consequences of the rapid growth in both
population and consumption have been many and varied. Unmanaged growth of consumption in
industrial countries has depleted non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and caused local and
global air pollution; it has also led to the over harvesting of renewable resources, such as many of the
world's most important fish stocks, threatening their ecological and commercial viability. Uncontrolled
population growth and the attendant poverty in developing countries have caused widespread
degradation of soils that support agriculture and the depletion of tropical forest.
1.3.2 DESERTIFICATION AND DEFORESTATION
Desertification, which converts productive lands into unproductive, occurs due to human activities to
some extent and obviously natural revolution as well. 6 million hectares of productive dry lands are
been converted into worthless desert each year. Desertification, most serious in the Sub-Saharan Africa
compelled millions of people to become ‘ecological refugees’ as their land no longer can support them.
Furthermore, these people in desperate pursuit to meet their urgent needs like food; water and house
destroy the eco-system as they do not have any sense of belonging or permanence to newly settled area
(GoP undated). Like many other countries, Bangladesh is also facing this problem. There are emergent
signs of desertification in the Neorthern part of Bangladesh (Bhuiyan 1994).
The Northwest
Bangladesh has only about 2 percent tree cover (Khan 2000). At the same time, it has been reported (in
the local media) that the influx of refugees from neighboring Myanmar has taken a serious toll on
forest cover in Cox’s Bazar region especially near Teknaf.
In addition to supplying timber and various other products, the most important role of forest is to
maintain ecological balance on the earth. It should be noted here that, for maintaining proper ecological
balance a country should have at least 25% of its total land area covered with vegetation, which should
6 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
be distributed have preferably even distribution of forests through out the country. In the global
context, forests serve as sinks for CO2, ameliorating climate change, and help ensure a continuous
supply of clean water. Watershed forests are particularly important because they help conserve soil
cover and protect downstream areas from excessive flooding. Through reducing the silt load of rivers,
watershed forests help prevent clogging of reservoirs, irrigation systems, and harbor facilities.
Unfortunately, deforestation is taking place in the developing countries at an alarming rate. New
estimates of tropical deforestation announced in 1990 indicate that every year some 20 million hectares
are lost; over the next 15 years, this implies an area the size of India will be denuded. In Africa,
estimates a decade ago indicated only one hectare was being replanted for every 29 hectares cut down.
Deforestation has been a major problem for Bangladesh too. The forests on state lands have been
subjected to organized encroachment, illicit commercial logging, unplanned conversion to agriculture
and other non-forestry uses, fire, grazing and other anthropogenic influences. In 1980s, the rate of
forest destruction was 8,000 hectares and the annual deforestation rate is estimated to be 3.3.
Consequently, per capita forestland has declined from 0.035 ha in 1969 to 0.02 ha in 1990 (BBS 1999).
The impact and manifestation of such alarming rate of deforestation are multifaceted. Deforestation
causes decrease in water holding capacity, increased soil erosion, and loss of habitat and biodiversity.
The cost of these impacts on the economy was estimated to be 1% of GDP in 1990 (BBS 1999).
Decrease in timber and other forest products incur direct economic loss. People living in the rural and
hilly areas who depend on forest for subsistence are affected. Many of the plants and animals that once
inhabited have either quietly vanished or have been on their way to extinction. During the last century,
such animals as Rhinos, Bisons and Gaur have slowly disappeared; so did a number of bird species
including the famous pink-headed wood ducks, which were only available in Bangladesh and Assam.
A considerable number of different species of snakes and reptiles has been lost. Number of elephants in
the northeast and southeastern forests of CHT has been drastically reduced over the last three decades.
Leopards, bears, deer and other animals, which were found in abundance in the plain land Sal forests,
have disappeared with the denudation of the forest trees (Gain 1998, Khan 2000).
1.3.3 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: GREEN HOUSE GASES AND OZONE LAYER
DEPLETION
The global atmospheric concentration of green house gases (GHGs) notably carbon dioxide (CO 2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapor, ozone (O3) and the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have
been increasing mostly due to human interference, resulting in the increase in global temperature and
lower atmosphere. The magnitude of this warming depends on the rate of increase in the concentration
of GHGs in the atmosphere (DoE 1997).
A higher-than-natural concentration of CO2 (produced by the burning of fossil fuels and woods), of
methane (produced by the decay of organic materials), of nitrogen oxides and low-level ozone (emitted
in automobile exhausts), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs used as refrigerants, as propellants, and as
solvents in various industrial processes) allows more solar radiation to reach the earth surface. At the
same time, it traps the reradiated heat - just as the glass in a green house retains heat. Scientist’s best
Bangladesh Environment 7
calculation to date indicate that as a consequences of a steady increase in the atmospheric concentration
of greenhouse gases, the earth is likely to be 1-2 degree warmer by 2030 than it is today (GoP undated).
Related to the GHG emissions, there is the much talked about problem of ozone layer depletion.
Scientists in the last few years have discovered areas in the stratosphere where the protective ozone
layer has become thinner. The thinning of the ozone layer is attributed to the release of certain
chemicals, particularly CFCs. This layer of ozone is important because it screens the ultraviolet
radiation reaching the earth's surface from the sun. Excess exposure to ultraviolet radiation is known to
raise the incidence of skin cancer among exposed populations, can increase cataract problems, and may
affect crop yields. To date, the reduction in ozone layer thickness has been identified over polar and
temperate regions of the earth, but the problem could spread to other areas. Bangladesh does not
manufacture CFCs, but it has a need for refrigeration fluids.
In response to the growing international concern about the threat of climate change, Inter-governmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in the year 1988 jointly by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). The 1995 IPCC
assessment report reveals that the recent years have been among the warmest since 1860, the period of
instrumental record, despite the cooling effect of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption. The
global sea level rose between 10 to 25 cm in the last 100 years mainly due to an increase in the global
mean temperature by 0.3 to 0.6 degree Celsius. The IPCC report also opines that, sea level rise would
continue due to thermal expansion of the oceans accompanied by melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
The report further predicts that, sea level would rise by 1.5 to 9.5 cm per decade over the 2100, which
would continue in the similar rate in immediate future centuries (DoE 1997).
There have been some studies to assess the possible implications of global climatic change for
Bangladesh. A Country Study on Climate Change (Bangladesh Climate Change Study) was conducted
in 1994 (BCAS undated, DoE 1997). GHG emission in Bangladesh from different sources, as estimated
by the study, is shown in the table 1. The study forecasted an average increase in temperature by 1.3 0C
and 2.60C for the year 2030 and 2075 respectively in Bangladesh, with seasonal variations: 1.4 0C
change in the winter and 0.70C in the monsoon months in the year 2030. For 2075 the variation would
be 2.00C and 1.70C for winter and monsoon seasons respectively.
The winter precipitation in 2030
may increase slightly in winter and moderately in monsoon. In 2075, the change would be much
pronounced in monsoon (about 530 mm/month), while there would not be any appreciable change in
winter precipitation. There would be excessive rainfall in the month monsoon causing flooding and
very little to no rainfall in the winter forcing draught (Ahmed and Alam undated).
TABLE 1. 1: EMISSION OF GHG FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES IN BANGLADESH
Sources of GHG emission
Combustion of fossil fuel
Energy production
Quantity of GHG
emitted
Global warming
potential
(Gg)
100 Years time horizon
13,443 as CO2
13,443
79.7 CH4
1,953
8 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
Sources of GHG emission
Quantity of GHG
emitted
Global warming
potential
Flooded rich fields
468 as CH4
11,513
Livestock (enteric fermentation & manure
management)
520 as CH4
12,792
Burning of agricultural residues
4.7 as CH4
116
97.3 as CO
0.11 asN20
3
3.84 as NOX
Forest (sink & source)
Biomass burning
No net emission
189.5 as CH4
4,662
2,340 as CO
2.4 as N2O
59
86 as NOX
All sources
44,541
Source: DoE 1997:10.
The effects and implications of the above climatic change may be far-reaching for Bangladesh. In the
agricultural sector, for example, based on a generalized analysis using the existing on farm data base,
one study (Habibullah et al. undated) predicts that an increase in the top soil salinity, resulting from
climatic change, over 8 dS m-1 would reduce HYV Aman rice production by about 15%. In the case of
oil seeds and pulses, the production might be reduced by about 35% and 25% respectively. Ali
(undated) reports that Climate change and consequent sea level rise is likely affect the water
temperature regimen and salinity regimes in the upper Bay of Bengal. Enhanced water temperature
may affect the reproductive physiology of many of the marine fishes. Climate change may also result in
the increased precipitation, increased frequency of floods and increased water flow to and through the
tidal rivers streams and creeks. This increased upper riparian fresh water flow into the estuaries and
coastal areas will alter the salinity gradients of the estuaries brackish water regions of Bangladesh,
which can make the habit conditions for various shrimps ad fish inhospitable. Regarding the forest
sector, it has been estimated that with 1 m rise in the sea level, the entire 401600 hectares of the
Sundarban mangrove forest as well as 36000 hectares of newly established man-made mangrove
forests along the coastline will be gradually destroyed and the forests will be shifted inwards. The
resulting increase in salinity will reduce the survival and regeneration of climax species i.e. Sundri
(Herietreria fomes) along with the alteration in the distribution and composition of Sundri and
Gewa (Choudhury et al. undated).
WATER SHARING
Among the regional issues, sharing of water between India and Bangladesh has been crucial. In the
recent month, Bangladesh has expressed particular concerns about the Indian plan for a US $200 billion
controversial river-linking project. Under the mammoth scheme, India plans to connect 37 rivers,
including the two major rivers of the region, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, by digging canals to
divert major common river waters to its drought-prone states. Marking a significant breakthrough, this
Bangladesh Environment 9
recent Joint River Commission (JRC) talks between India and Bangladesh ended with India agreeing to
involve its neighbor in future discussions on the plans and development of the project. Bangladeshi
experts, together with the Water Resources Ministry, opine that the scheme will severely hit
Bangladesh, which depends on the two major rivers for 85 per cent of its surface water supplies during
the dry season.
The two countries signed the much talked-about Ganges Water Sharing Treaty in 1996. Currently,
Bangladesh is negotiating with India to continue to discuss water-sharing arrangements on seven transboundary rivers in the region, along the lines of the Treaty.
1.3.4 TRANS-BOUNDARY POLLUTION AND THE SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
The ability of pollutants to cross borders has been one of the major concerns and source of dispute for
several decades around the globe: dying of trees in Canada and Norway from acid precipitation which
originates from industrial activity in United States and United Kingdom, respectively can be cited here
as an example. In the South Asian region, contaminated water supply has become a major concern to
the downstream water users, while trans-boundary air pollution may become common as each
jurisdiction attempts to dissipate pollutants through higher smoke-stacks.
Majority of the world's domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastes are generated in the industrialized
countries with an estimated annual generation of 400 million tones of wastes. Dumping of wastes has
serious and critical issue; as they are long lasting, resistant to natural breakdown, toxic to human
beings, and capable of damaging ecosystem functions, hence require special handling, treatment, and
disposal. This problem has been aggravated by the refusal and obstacle in dumping off of the hazardous
wastes from the communities in many industrial countries in there nearby areas, which in turn
provoked the industrialized countries to dump their hazardous waste in the developing countries (GoP
undated). Absence of adequate systems for tracking wastes in this region has permitted such illegal
practices to continue. Bangladesh, one of the victims in this regards, should be more vigilant against
the importation of such wastes, which would threaten human health and the quality of fisheries in
coastal areas, where they are likely to be dumped.
1.3.5 LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL LOSS
Soil is the most important amongst the life support systems because production of food grains mostly
depends it. Soil and its fertility deteriorate due to erosion, which is caused by natural and human
interference. Contrary to this, soil is usually regenerated at the same rate it is removed in the
undisturbed ecosystems having plant cove. Under natural conditions of vegetative cover, it takes 100400 years to generate one centimeter of topsoil in arid and semi-arid areas. One estimate indicates that
24 billion more tones of soil are lost annually through erosion worldwide than are formed through these
natural processes (GoP undated).
In Bangladesh the major processes and manifestations of land degradation and soil loss include the
following: Improper cultivation of sloping land resulting in landslides, topsoil erosion and deposition
of eroded sediments on the riverbeds and agricultural land; shifting cultivation practices by the tribal
10 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
people of Chittagong Hill Tracts; Unplanned rural network of road especially in the meander flood
plain areas; uncontrolled brick kilns; establishment of industrial estates in good agricultural lands;
unplanned rural settlements; overexploitation of biomass from the agricultural fields; river bank
erosion; transplanted rice plantation through water logging; and deforestation and forestland
encroachment (Rahman 1990, Hassan 1999).
1.3.6 WETLAND DEGRADATION
Wetlands are the key resource for maintenance of world’s biological heritage. Besides providing shelter
for wildlife, waterfowl and two-thirds of the world’s fisheries and many other non-timber forest
products, coastal wetlands and mangroves most importantly serve as shelter belts for the inland people.
Wetlands, floodplains, sea grass beds, and coral reefs are being destroyed throughout the world. In
industrial countries, the main causes are industrial and agricultural pollutants. In the developing
countries, the causes are short-sighted development, such as the filling in of coastal waters to provide
sites for industry, housing, and airports, and poverty-induced activities, such as the extraction of coral
reefs for building materials and the cutting of mangroves for fuel wood.
Wetlands in Bangladesh, notably haors and beels, are being threatened due to both human activities.
Crop production generates the maximum pressure on the haors. Most wetlands in the country are under
public ownership and are ‘open access’ areas, where over-extraction of resources and consequent
degradation are widespread. One major problem of management of wetlands in Bangladesh originates
from the existing tenurial arrangements. During the wet season, wetlands are leased out for fishing, but
in the dry season irrigated agriculture is practiced. Flood control and irrigation structures all over the
country also have a significant impact on our ecology. These structures block the natural migration
routes (e.g. from river into flood plains and haors during the pre-monsoon months) of fish during the
breeding season. Wetlands are also being permanently converted into all season agricultural land or
being encroached upon due to rapid urbanization. More than 60% of the brackish water zone in the
coastal area has been devoured by the unplanned shrimp cultivation (CPD 2003, SEHD 1998).
1.3.7 URBAN GROWTH
The world's economic system is increasingly based on urban activity. By year 2000, almost half the
world will live in cities, with three-fourths of the industrial world and 40% of people in developing
countries being urban dwellers. Cities in many developing countries have grown at rates without
historic precedent. Urban population quadrupled in these nations between 1950 and 1985, from 286
million to 1.14 billion. National and city governments in the developing countries are ill equipped to
meet this challenge. Few have the power, resources, and trained staff to provide rapidly growing urban
populations with the land, services, and facilities needed: clean water, sanitation, schools, and transport
(GoP undated).
In line with the global experience, current trends in Bangladesh indicate that urbanization is inevitable
and it may bring substantial negative consequences. Problems occur especially when the growth rate is
too fast and exceeds the capacity of the infrastructure to absorb and support it. Historically, towns and
Bangladesh Environment 11
cities in Bangladesh have been few in number, and until recently, the country was largely rural. In
1961, slightly more than 5% of the total population lived in the urban areas. During the last decade,
Bangladesh has experienced severe problems related to urban growth. According to the 1991 census
estimate, 22% of the country’s population is urban. The urban population had a growth rate of 4.67 %
per annum during 1981-91. The estimated population of Dhaka (the capital and worst affected city
from rural migration) was 9 millions and its projected population for the year 2015 is 15.68 millions
(SEHD 1998). Nearly 58-78 million people will be living in urban areas in 2025. Currently 61.3% of
urban households or nearly 12.85 million urban people line in absolute poverty. The country has some
3300 slums. The total volume of wastes in urban centers in Bangladesh is between 6000 and 7000 tons
a day (Nishat et al. 2001).
1.3.8 DISASTERS
South Asia is the most flood prone area of the world. Bangladesh tops the chart amongst the most
flood-affected countries of the world followed by India. Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka also face floods
with regular/irregular interval and intensity. The river systems in this sub-continent play a crucial role
in the causation of flood and can be classified mainly in two broad groups i.e. rivers of the Himalayan
region and rivers of the peninsula. The three Himalayan rivers, Indus, Ganga/Padma, and Brahmaputra,
together with their tributaries are a bane for Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Despite of ‘billion
dollars’ effort by the Governments of all South Asian countries in the shape of dams and embankments
constructed to combat floods, flood damage has been increasing over the years in this region. Dams in
many cases have become one of the major causes for flooding and embankments disrupted the natural
drainage systems in the flood plains. Coastal and river erosion is another serious problem of several
South Asian countries. According to one estimate, each year in Bangladesh alone, at least 20000
families become homeless due to the riverbank erosion (SEHD 1998). The other regional disasters,
which Bangladesh shares, include cyclones, draught, earthquakes, and arsenic contamination in ground
water. The following table summarizes the major disasters faced by Bangladesh.
TABLE 1.2: SELECTED MAJOR DISASTERS FACING BANGLADESH
Name of the
event
Causal Factor
Principal vulnerability
Susceptible areas
Cyclones &
Tornadoes
Depression, storm surges
& gusty wind
Traumatic
death/injury,
diarrhoeal disease, loss of
lives and standing crops,
damage to houses, food
storage,
infrastructure,
power lines/roads, health
facilities
4 coastal districts in
southern and south
western Bangladesh
Floods
Seasonal rain, sudden
rush of excessive up
stream
water
from
across the border, poor
drainage system and
reduced
carrying
capacity of the major
rivers.
Loss of lives, standing
crops, food shortage.
diarrhoeal
diseases,
famine 3-12 months post
impact
Moat
part
of
Bangladesh,
particularly the NorthEast
district
and
Dhaka.
12 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
Name of the
event
Causal Factor
Principal vulnerability
Susceptible areas
Drought
Drying up soils due to
less
rainfall
and
drastically fall of water
table
Diarrhoeal disease due to
lack of safe drinking
water, loss of standing
crops, food shortage,
famine 3-12 months post
impact and migration
North-western districts
Earthquakes
Geographic location in
one
of
the
most
seismically active zone
of the world
Traumatic death or injury,
loss of live stock and
standing
crops,
destruction
to
infrastructure, power lines,
roads, heath facilities,
diarrhoeal diseases due to
lack of safe drinking water
Sylhet division is the
most seismic, Dhaka,
Chittagong
other
cities
River
bank
erosion
Gradual sedimentation
on major river beds,
reduce
carrying
capacity of the major
rivers, sudden flow of
monsoon, rain water or
any
other
water
discharge
from
the
clogged river
Loss of agricultural land
(annual average rate is
87,000 hectares). About
one million people are
affected every year
Earthline of river and
adjoining
areas.
GangesBrahmaputraMeghna
middle
basin.
Arsenic
contaminati
on of ground
water
Arsenic contaminated
soil characteristic and
aquifers from which
water is extracted for
domestic use. Natural
occurrence of arsenic
in
the
GangesBrahmaputra-Meghna
Basin as well as in parts
of
Sylhet
basin.
Presence of pyrite and
arseno-pyrite in the soil.
Excessive sinking of tube
wells all over the land,
Discoloration of skin and
rashes followed by goose
like growth in many parts
of
the
body,
malfunctioning of organs,
solid edema, sores and
other symptoms. In the
final stage the affected
person develops cancer
and dies.
Arsenic
contamination
has
been observed in as
many as 59 out of a
total of 64 districts of
the country.
Sources: based on SEHD (1998), FEJB 1999, CPD 2003.
1 . 4 B A N G L A D E S H ’ S C O M M I T M E N T TO I N T E R N AT I O N A L T R E AT I E S A N D
E F F O RT S C O N C E R N I N G E N V I R O N M E N T A N D S U S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T
Bangladesh, as an active and informed member of the global family, has consistently kept herself
abreast of, and responded to the above global and regional environmental challenges and trends by
taking up a wide range of efforts towards environmental conservation and sustainable development.
These efforts and interventions span over four broad areas: International Conventions, Treaties and
Protocols (ICTPs); Policies; Programs; and Legal mechanisms.
Since the first half of the 1990s as, keeping the pace with the rest of the world, environmental
sustainability (through sustainable development planning) has become a central theme of policymaking
Bangladesh Environment 13
in Bangladesh. The Government’s pro-nature commitment is depicted in the formation of a new
Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) and the up-gradation of Department of Environment
(DoE). Bangladesh has so far signed, ratified and accessed around 27 international conventions and
protocols related to environment and development. As a signatory to these conventions and protocols,
the government has zealously attempted to implement them at the national level in its sectoral plans,
policies and laws. Bangladesh has by now adopted a good number of policies, plans and legal
mechanisms concerning environment and development. Chapter Ten of the Fifth Five-Year Plan (19972002) entitled, “Environment and Sustainable Development” identified the major areas of concern
faced by the country, reviewed the past performance of the government in this area and outlined
objectives and strategies for preventing environmental pollution and degradation. The following table
proffers a summary of the major efforts and interventions in four broad areas: International
Conventions, Treaties and Protocols (ICTPs); Policies; Programs; and Legal mechanisms.
TABLE 1.3: SUMMARY OF SELECTED MAJOR EFFORTS AND INTERVENTIONS TOWARDS
ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN BANGLADESH
Major Efforts and
Interventions
Brief Description
Selected International Conventions, Treaties and Protocols (ICTPs)
Ramsar Convention,
1971
Convention on wetlands of international importance, especially as
waterfowl habitat, 1971; Bangladesh ratified the convention in
1992.
Cites, 1973
Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild
fauna and flora (CITES), 1973; Bangladesh signed and ratified the
convention in 1981 and 1982 respectively.
Vienna Convention,
1985
Vienna convention for the protection of the Ozone layer;
Bangladesh has accessed the convention.
Montreal Protocol,
1987
Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer; Bangladesh
accessed it in 1992.
Basel Convention, 1989
Convention on the control of trans-boundary movements of
hazardous wastes and their disposal; Bangladesh has accessed the
convention in 1993.
FCCC
Framework convention on climate change; Bangladesh accessed
the convention in 1992.
CBD, 1992
Convention on biological diversity (CBD); signed in 1992 in Rio. Initial
activities in implementing the convention in Bangladesh have
begun.
ICCD, 1994
International convention to combat desertification; signed in Paris
in 1994.In Bangladesh an action plan is yet to be drawn up in this
regard.
Selected Policy Interventions
Environmental Policy
and Action Plan, 1992
It provides sector wise policy guidelines which should be developed
by the respective ministries. An implementation plan, appended to
the policy, is an integral part of it. It outlines the actions that various
GoB agencies and NGOs should undertake to implement the
policy.
National Environment
Management Action
NEMAP was an environmental planning exercise initiated by the
Government of Bangladesh through the Ministry of Environment
and Forest following the commitments made under Agenda 21 at
14 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
Major Efforts and
Interventions
Brief Description
Plan (NEMAP), 1995
UNCED in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. NEMAP attempted to secure
participation of the common people, interest groups, resource
users and environmental stockholders, NGOs and lobbyists in all
phases of planning and implementation of its policies, programs
and projects. NEMAP identified the key environmental issues and
the actions required to halt or reduce the rate of environmental
degradation, improve the natural and manmade environment,
conserve habitats and bio-diversity, promote sustainable
development and improve quality of human life.
Selected Programmatic Interventions
National Conservation
Strategy
Implementation Project
(NCS IP) 1994
MoEF in 1994 started the NCS IP with an aim to piloting conservation
practices in selected ecosystems with financial support form the
NORAD. The project’s objectives were: promotion of sustainable
development through institutional development at national level and
instituting conservation concerns in the national planning process;
improvement of environmental management of biodiversity; and
raising the level of environmental awareness of various sections of the
society.A number of projects have been planned under the NCS IP.
Among which Important projects are Tanguar Haor Wetland Biodiversity
Conservation, Conservation of Coral Resources of Narikel Jinjira (St.
Martin).
Ramsar Site
Conservation Initiative
at Tanguar Haor, 2000
Under the auspices of the NCS IP, the Tanguar Haor Pilot Project
(THPP) was launched in 2000. The goal of the Project has been to
ensure the long-term conservation of the globally significant
biodiversity of Tanguar. The Project activities included: a restoration
program to safeguard habitats important for biodiversity
maintenance, curb threats to biodiversity, reduce pressures on the
natural resources by means of resource substitution; a poverty
alleviation program; and a capacity development program aimed
for local inhabitants towards sustainable resource utilization.
NEMAP
Implementation
NEMAP is currently in its implementation phase with a number of
on-going programs, notably, the Air Quality Monitoring Project
(AQMP), Bangladesh Environment Management Program (BEMP)
and Sustainable Environment Management Program (SEMP)..
Sustainable
Environment
Management
Programme (SEMP)
SEMP, one of the largest environmental programs supported by the
UNDP, has 26 components which are being implemented by 21
Sub-Implementing
Agencies
(Government:08,
Professional
bodies:02 and NGOs:11). SEMP has five broad Sub-programs:
Policy and Institution; Participatory Eco-system Management;
Community Based Environmental Sanitation; Advocacy and
Awareness; and e) Training and Education.
Sundarbanss
Biodiversity
Conservation Project
(SBCP)
The overall objective of this ADB-assisted project is to develop a
sustainable management and biodiversity conservation system for
all Sundarbans Reserved Forest (SRF) resources on the basis of
rational plans and the participation of all key stakeholders. To
achieve this objective, the Project aims at: improved institutional
capacity to manage the SRF; adoption of biodiversity conservation
and sustainable resource management measures; reduction in the
poverty level of the 3.5 million people living in the impact zone
through expanded economic opportunities. The project activities
has recently been suspended by the ADB and the government is
currently reformulating and redesigning the project to make it more
responsive to local demands and contexts.
Legal Mechanism for Environmental Protection
Bangladesh Environment 15
Major Efforts and
Interventions
Brief Description
Environmental
Conservation Act
(ECA) 1995 and
Environmental
Conservation Rules
(ECR) 1997
The first major law that has been promulgated for the specific purpose
of conservation of nature and protection of environment is the
Environmental Conservation Act (ECA) of 1995, which was followed by
the Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR) of 1997.
Environmental Court
Act, 2000
The act provides for the establishment of one or more
Environmental Courts, primarily at each Divisions of the country,
with specific terms of references to deal with environmental
offences.
Miscellaneous laws
Besides the above, there are around two hundred laws in Bangladesh
which have, in some cases, direct relevance to environment. In most of
the cases, the primary objective of these laws does not concern
natural resource management or addressing environmental pollution
directly; these laws can, however, be invoked very much to cover
various sectoral aspects of the environment that embrace pesticides
use, land use, human health, urban facilities etc. public services and
practices (Farooque and Hasan, 1996).
EPILOGUE
As the preceding discussion suggests, the global and regional problems facing Bangladesh are
formidable, and the country has adopted a steady and pragmatic approach to encounter these
challenges. We have walked a long way towards defining the norms of environmental conservation
and sustainable development. We have revised our policies, ratified ICTPs, developed and adopted new
strategies, implemented new programs and projects. Yet the journey is far from over; a lot remains to
be done. One of the key prerequisites for launching successful efforts towards an effective approach to
combat environmental problems is a national political consensus. The need for multi stakeholder
involvement and ownership of decision making can hardly be over-emphasized. Enabling the people to
participate in decision making is another important aspect in ensuring sustainable development, and
only democratic practices can ensure a pro-people role. Science and technology, important as they are,
may not alone solve the myriad global and regional problems facing Bangladesh. Much will depend on
the changes in human perception and in willingness of people to behave differently at the individual,
community, national, and international levels. Reforms of behavior, institutions and technologies will
need to continue. The current efforts and initiatives must be further intensified, and Bangladesh needs
to move in pace with the global struggle towards building a better environment. In line with the global
spirit reflected in the World Conservation Strategy, the National Conservation Strategy (NCS) of
Bangladesh represents one such major move and commitment on the part of the country.
Bangladesh Environment 17
CHAPTER 2
Bangladesh Environment:
The Rationale for Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy
2.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY
Bangladesh occupies a unique geographic location -- spanning a relatively short stretch of land between
the mighty Himalayan mountain chain and the open ocean. It is virtually the only drainage outlet for a
vast river basin complex made up of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers and their network of
tributaries. These rivers, which cause almost regular and serious floods over much of the country
during the summer monsoons, are reduced to a mere trickle during the dry winter months. If basin-wide
collaboration could be affected to generate a higher dry weather flow and control the same during the
monsoon, the benefits to millions of people could be immeasurable.
Three broad physiographic regions are discernible -- floodplains occupy about 80 per cent, terraces
(slightly uplifted fault blocks) about 8 per cent, and hills about 12 per cent of the land area. Each of
these regions exhibits its own geomorphological characteristics, which make convenient a further
sub-division into 19 generalized physiographic units as follows (FAO, 1988):
TABLE 2.1: PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF BANGALDESH
No.
Physiographic Uunit
Area in km2
1
Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain
4008
2
Tista Floodplain
10304
3
Karatoya - Bangali Floodplain
2572
4
Lower Atrai Basin
851
4
Lower Purnabhaba Floodplain
129
5
Brahmaputra Floodplain
16344
6
Ganges River Floodplain
24508
7
Ganges Tidal Floodplain
17066
8
Gopalganj Khulna Beels
2247
9
Arial Beel
144
10
Meghna River Floodplain
2464
11
Meghna Estuarine Floodplain
17011
18 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
No.
Physiographic Uunit
Area in km2
12
Surma - Kusiyara Floodplain
9195
13
Northern and Eastern Piedmont
Plains
4038
14
Chittagong Coastal Plain
3720
15
Jinjiradwip (St. Martin's) Coral
Island
16
Barind Tract
7727
17
Madhupur Tract
4244
18
Northern and Eastern Hills
18172
19
Akhaura Terrace
8
113
Bangladesh Environment 19
FIGURE 2.1: THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS OF BANGLADESH
20 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.2 SOILS
The soil resource could be divided into three major groups: floodplain, hill and terrace soils. The
floodplain soils are alluvial deposits ranging from sandy soils deposited on higher ridges, silty clay
loams on the lower ridges, silty clays and clays in the depressions occupying 80 per cent of the
country's land area. Fresh alluvium is extensively deposited closer to the rivers, while the older deposits
further away from the river are conducive to plant growth.
The hilly areas spreading over 12 per cent of the total land surface have mainly loamy soils of shallow
depth, not suited for the cultivation of shallow-rooted crops because of the poor water-holding capacity.
The soils of the two terraces covering 8 per cent of the total area are diverse, ranging from deep,
reddish brown friable well drained clay loams to grey, poorly drained silty top soils over clay on level
highlands.
2.2.1 FLOODPLAIN SOILS
(1a) Calcareous Alluvium (non-saline), (1b) Calcareous Alluvium (seasonally saline), (2)
Noncalcareous Alluvium, (3) Calcareous Grey Floodplain Soils, (4) Calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain
Soils, (5a) Noncalcareous Grey Floodplain Soils (non-saline), (5b) Noncalcareous Grey Floodplain
Soils (seasonally saline), (6) Noncalcareous Brown Floodplain Soils, (7) Noncalcareous Dark Grey
Floodplain Soils, (8) Non-calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain Soils and Peat, (9) Black Terai Soils, (10)
Acid Basin Clays, (11) Acid Sulphate Soils, (12) Grey Piedmont Soils,
2.2.2 HILL SOILS
(13) Brown Hill Soils,
2.2.3 TERRACE SOILS
(14) Shallow and Deep Grey Terrace Soils, and (15) Deep Red-Brown Terrace Soils.
Four additional soil types have subsequently been included making the total to 21. Fig. 2 represents the
highly generalized soil map of Bangladesh showing the overall distribution of 17 principal soil types of
floodplain, hill and terrace soils.
There is a broad range of agro-ecological environment in Bangladesh, which is classified into 30 major
agro-ecological regions with about 88 sub-regions. In addition to the regional diversity in
agro-ecological conditions, there are considerable local variations with respect to type, soil moisture
regime and soil properties. Fig. 3 represents 30 major agro-ecological regions of Bangladesh.
Eight categories of problem soils significantly limit crop production in the country. Individual areas of
these problem soils and their occurrence in the generalized physiographic units are shown in Table 1.
Soil erosion is a serious problem in Bangladesh. Because of high rainfall and steep slope, particularly
in hilly areas, the surface soils are being continuously washed away. Soil erosion is more serious and
conspicuous in the hilly areas than in the floodplains.
Bangladesh Environment 21
In many areas soil resources are being degraded due to improper use of land, fertilizer, irrigation,
intensive cropping and some other activities.
FIGURE 2.2: SOIL MAP OF BANGLADESH
22 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
FIGURE 2.3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF BANGLADESH
Bangladesh Environment 23
TABLE 2.1: THE EXTENT AND OCCURRENCE OF PROBLEM SOILS.
SL.
NO.
CATEGORIES
TOTAL AREA
PHYSIOGRAPHIC UNITS
1
Steep slopes
1231.88
Northern and Eastern Hills
2
Acid Sulphate Soils
226.36
Chittagong Coastal Plain
(000 ha)
Ganges Tidal Floodplain
3
Peats
101.34
Gopalgonj-Khulna Beels
4
Coarse Textured Soils
399.64
Northern and Eastern Hills
Old Himalayan Piedmont
Tista Floodplain
Karatoa-Bengali Floodplain
Active Brahmaputra Floodplain
Young Brahmaputra
Floodplain
and
Jamuna
Active Ganges Floodplain
St. Martin's Coral Island
5
Shallow Soils (less than 50
cm.)
163.98
Northern and Eastern Hills
6
Poor Drainage
3064.88
Within all Floodplain, Basin and Beel
Areas
7
Severe Fertility
1099.88
Northern and Eastern Piedmont Plain
Barind Tract
Modhupur Tract
Northern and Eastern Hills
Akhaura Terrace
8
Saline Soils
1300.00
Meghna Estuarine Floodplain
Note: Because of higher cropping intensity medium highland soils are not categorized
under poor drainage but medium lowland, lowland and very lowland have been
considered under poor drainage because they significantly limit crop production.
Source : Rahman, 1990.
2 . 3 C L I M AT E A N D W E AT H E R
The climate of Bangladesh is sub-tropical and is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayan
mountain range and the Tibet plateau in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the south. There are three
seasons in a year: summer, monsoon and winter. The rainfall is either monsoonal, inter-monsoonal or
cyclonic in origin. The mean annual rainfall varies from as low as 1,500 mm in western region to as
high as 5,000 mm in the eastern region.
The summer covers the period from March to June. The average temperature during the summer
months is 27.80C. The maximum summer temperature ranges between 33 0C and 350C although
occasionally it rises up to 400C or more. During this period Bangladesh is frequently visited by
norwesters. Weather remains hot and humid throughout the summer season. Cyclones and tornadoes
are also quite common during this period with average rainfall of 762 mm. Cyclones are often very
destructive, sometimes moving at speeds of over 150 km per hour and creating tidal surges as high as 9
m in the coastal belt causing colossal loss of life and property.
24 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
The monsoon season is spread over the months of June to October. Humid air blowing from southwest
brings torrential rains. During the rainy season the rainfall varies from 1,270 mm to 3,988 mm.
Humidity level remains over 80 per cent. The sky remains mostly cloudy. Eighty per cent of the rainfall
occurs during the monsoon months.
The winter season is spread over the months of November to February of the following year. Average
temperature is 17.80C while minimum temperature is 7.20C. The minimum temperature can, however,
have wide variation. In 1905 the minimum temperature recorded in Dinajpur was 1.1 0C (Hasan, 1985)
and in 1990 1.50C (BMD Weather Bulletin). There are hardly any rains during the winter months, but
when they occur these are usually less than 10 mm. The weather remains dry and the sky is clear. Early
morning fog and mist is a common phenomenon.
In the middle of October and November, the monsoon wind changes its course. Low pressures develop
in the Bay of Bengal and cyclones, at times with hurricane wind speed, build up and travel towards
north and strike the Bangladesh coast.
Although in area Bangladesh is a small country, the climate variation is quite well marked. According
to Rashid (1977) Bangladesh may be broadly divided into seven climatic zones: (i) Northern part of
northern zone, (ii) Northwestern zone, (iii) Western dry zone, (iv) Southwestern zone, (v) Southcentral
zone, (vi) Northern zone, and (vii) Southeastern zone (Fig. 4).
In recent years, due to global warming, Bangladesh environment is under threat. Besides the regular
disasters like drought, flooding, norwester, tornado, cyclone and tidal surge, Bangladesh is also
susceptible to sea-level rise and large scale inundation of its low lying land due to global warming.
2.4 PLANTS AND ANIMALS
2.4.1 PLANTS
Plant resources cover both wild and cultivated plants. The wild plant resources are rich in species
diversity and generally found in the natural forests. The natural forests are of three main types: the hill
forests in the east, the Sundarban mangrove forest in the southwest and the plain land forests in the
central and northern regions. These are the productive natural forest areas of the country and are
managed by the Forest Department.
However, there is also a category of Unclassed State Forests. These are in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
comprise 0.73 million ha, and are under the control of District Councils. These lands have long been
subjected to shifting cultivation and hence are degraded and contain large patches of tree savanna and
Imperata grass. These areas are being gradually brought under afforestation programme through upland
settlement schemes.
The hill forests cover 0.67 million ha and are characterized by a large diversity of species. Among the
timber species of commercial importance are: Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.), Civit (Swintonia
floribunda), Jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa), Jam (Syzygium spp.), Telsur (Hopea odorata), Boilam
Bangladesh Environment 25
(Anisoptera glabra), Bandarholla (Duabanga grandiflora), Chapalish (Artocarpus chaplasha), Champa
(Michelia champaca) and Gamar (Gmelina arborea). The main canopy is about 30 - 36 m in height and
the dipterocarp stands rise above 45 m. Bamboo is abundant in the understorey and is also found as
pure stands. Of the eight bamboo species, four are of commercial value -- mainly in paper manufacture
and rural housing.
The marketable products are mainly timber, firewood, bamboo, cane (Calamus spp.), thatch grass
(Imperata cylindrica), medicinal plants, and extracts used in paints and varnishes. Paper and pulp
industries are also supported by these forests. The fruits of Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), Bohera (T.
belerica) and Amloki (Phyllanthus embelica) find uses in medicine. Additional information on hill
forests is given in Section 2.5.1.
Plain land forests covering 0.12 million ha are also known as inland sal forests as Sal (Shorea robusta)
is the predominant species in these forests. Other deciduous species such as Haldu (Adina cordifolia),
Hargaza (Dillenia pentagyna) and Sheora (Streblus asper) occur as associates. Undergrowth is scanty.
These forests are degraded, scattered in nature and inextricably mixed with habitation and agricultural
land.
The Sundarban mangrove forests are found on the acid-sulphate soils of the deltaic region over an area
of 0.57 million ha. These mangrove forests face tremendous pressure from varied uses and signs of
degradation are evident. In view of their ecological importance, a detailed section on Sundarban
mangrove forests appears in section 2.5.2.
A very important source of timber, fuelwood and other produce is the 0.27 million ha (crown cover
area) of village forests. These village groves consist of fruit species and multi-purpose mixed species
including bamboo and provide 70 per cent of the timber and 90 per cent of the fuelwood requirements
of the country. Some 149-tree species are known to grow in village forests.
Sixty-eight woody legumes in the forests, 130 species of fibre yielding plants both wild and cultivated,
and 29 life-support plant species in the inland water-logged areas have been reported. There are
numerous economically important plant resources other than trees. These include bamboos, rattans,
palms, orchids and medicinal plants. About 5,000 species of angiosperm are reported to occur in
Bangladesh.
Among the cultivated plants, agricultural crops are the most important and include rice, wheat, jute,
cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, tea, fruits and vegetables, pulses and oilseeds, and spices.
2.4.2 ANIMALS
Among the animal resources, wildlife (Amphibia to Mammalia) is important from the view point of
biodiversity. The wildlife of Bangladesh has a rich diversity, being, zoogeographically, at the
confluence of the Peninsular India, Himalayas and Southeast Asia. However, loss of habitats has been a
major cause of decline of wildlife species.
26 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
The wild animal species include 119 mammals, 578 birds, 124 reptiles, 19 amphibians (GOB, 1986),
260 fishes (Rahman, 1989), 12 exotic fishes (Rahman, 1985) and 56 species of palaemonid and penaeid
prawns in the freshwater, estuarine and marine waters (Kibria, 1985).
There are 10 species of bivalves (Mumtaz, 1987) of which 7 belonging to the family Unionidae bear
pearls. The best quality pink pearls come from Lamellidens jenkinsianus and L. merginalis. Two
species of marine bivalves, Placuna placenta and P. sella, are found off Cox's Bazar and Sonadia
Island. In addition, 7 species of edible marine bivalves have been reported and are also found at
Moheshkhali, Teknaf and Jinjiradwip (St. Martin's Island) (Bannerjee, 1990).
There are 11 species of marine crabs and four species of freshwater crabs. Of the latter, one species,
Scylla serrata, is of economic importance (Shafi and Mia, 1975). Three species of lobsters are found in
the waters around Jinjiradwip and Teknaf.
The domesticated animals include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, poultry birds and duck. They provide the
major protein requirements of the country. Cattle and buffalo are extensively used in ploughing and
rural transportation aside from being major sources of hide and skin. The Bengal goat is well known for
its superior quality hide and skin. There are about 22 m heads of cattle and buffalo in the country.
2 . 5 E C O S Y S T E M S O F I M P O RTA N C E
2.5.1 HILL FORESTS
The hill forests are composed of tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. The natural vegetation
spreads over the hilly areas of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Chittagong, Cox's Bazar and Sylhet Forest
Divisions. The hills are not very high, generally about 600 m, but they are rugged and often steep. In
the valleys flow many streams and rivers, and the damming of the Karnafully river for the Kaptai
Hydropower Project has given rise to the Kaptai Lake in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The hill forests are
the most important watershed areas of the country. A large diversity of tree, bamboo and shrub species
of ecological significance is found in these forests.
The tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are not very distinct and are often intermingled and
merged into one another. The majority species in the understorey are evergreen, whereas majority of
the dominants are deciduous. However, some of these deciduous trees shed their leaves during the
winter season and other trees during the monsoon so that the forests generally appear evergreen.
The tropical evergreen forests are found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and in some parts of
Chittagong, Cox's Bazar and Sylhet Forest Divisions, particularly in the valleys. The predominant
species in this type of forest are Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.), Civit (Swintonia floribunda), Chapalish
(Artocarpus chaplasha), Chundul (Tetrameles nudiflora), Telsur (Hopea odorata), and Narikeli
(Pterygota alata). In the lower canopy important species like Pitraj (Aphanamixis polystachya), Toon
(Toona ciliata), Nageswar (Mesua nagessarium), Uriam (Mangifera sylvatica), and Jam (Syzygium
spp.) are found. The undergrowth is usually a tangle of shrubs in which cane, bamboo and wild banana
are prominent.
Bangladesh Environment 27
The tropical semi-evergreen forests are most common and widespread in the hill forests. The
principal characteristic is the presence of a large proportion of deciduous species which remain usually
leafless for a short period during the winter season. In the upper canopy, Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.) is
usually found together with other deciduous species such as Chundul (Tetrameles nudiflora, Chapalish
(Artocarpus chaplasha, Koroi (Albizzia spp.), Bandarhola (Duabanga grandiflora), Bhadi (Garuga
pinnata), Toon (Toona ciliata), and Chikrassi (Chickrassia tabularis). The lower canopy is largely
evergreen with various species of the families Meliaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Cruciferae.
Several species of bamboos are typical of the semi-evergreen forests. Often they occur in pure patches
near the creeks.
Several hundred species of taxonomic importance are found in the hill forests, but only a few are
commercially important. Hill forests are being utilized as production forests and managed under the
clearfelling system followed by artificial regeneration with a limited number of selected indigenous and
exotic species. These forests are gradually being converted into plantation forests. This has resulted in
loss of biodiversity and original flora having distinct canopy structure. The managed hill forests do not
have any status of protection forests in the true conservation sense, except for the areas designated as
wildlife sanctuaries, national park, and game reserve. There are two Wildlife Sanctuaries (Pablakhali
and Chunati), a National Park (Himchari) and a Game Reserve (Teknaf) in the hill forests. In these
protected areas, the usual forestry operations are not supposed to take place.
Over the years the hill forest areas have been shrinking and degrading mainly due to shifting
cultivation, encroachments, land alienation and over-exploitation. Over 60 per cent depletion in
growing stock in Rainkheong Reserved Forests in the Hill Tracts have occurred between 1963 and
1983. A large area in the Chittagong Hill Tracts -- the Unclassed State Forests -- has been subjected to
shifting cultivation and unregulated felling for decades. The area is virtually devoid of tree cover and is
vulnerable to severe erosion during the monsoon season.
Loss of species diversity and wildlife habitat is the result of the clear-felling system of forest
management in the hill forests. In view of the importance of the forest cover in hydrology and
maintenance of genetic diversity and as habitat for wildlife, the clearfelling system of forest operations
in the hill forests needs careful review. The dipterocarp belt of the tropical evergreen and
semi-evergreen hill forests is of immense ecological importance requiring protection through a network
of protected areas. Furthermore the entire Unclassed State Forests is an ecological disaster and in a
state of environmental crisis. The urgent task is to restore the tree cover in the Unclassed State Forests
as rapidly as possible and prevent further degradation of the hill forests.
28 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.5.2 THE SUNDARBAN *
The Sundarban area extending over 0.57 million ha, in the districts of Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira,
is the largest single block of mangrove forest in the world. Out of 0.57 million ha, about 0.17 million
ha is occupied by rivers, channels and other watercourses. It has been formed from sediments deposited
by three great rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, converging on the Bengal Basin. The
Sundarban is dominated by dense mangrove forest cover, and are subject to tidal inundation of
semidiurnal pattern with a maximum amplitude of 3 m at spring tides.
The soil is a silty clay loam with alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the
seaward side of islands in the coastal limits, where sandy beaches occur. A wide range of salinity has
been recorded at different sites and at different times of the year. In general, the salinity increases from
east to west, and from north to south. Conditions are most saline during February to April, when the
inflow of freshwater is at its lowest and soil moisture is depleted; the salinity falls sharply in June with
the onset of monsoon rain.
Three major zones have been recognized on the basis of salinity: a freshwater zone, a moderately saline
zone and a saline zone. The dominant species of the freshwater zone is Heritiera fomes, followed by
Excoecaria agallocha, Xylocarpus moluccensis and Bruguiera gymnorhiza in the more frequently
flooded areas. The understorey is dominated by Cynometra ramiflora on dry soil and Amoora cucullata
on moist soils. In the moderately saline zone the dominant species is E. agallocha mixed with H. fomes
and X. moluccensis, and has a dense understorey of Ceriops decandra. The saline zone supports sparse
E. agallocha with a dense understorey of C. decandra, and dense patches of the palm Phoenix
paludosa on comparatively dry soils.
Other common species of mangrove include Xylocarpus obovata, Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia
officinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum, Acanthus ilicifolius and Rhizophora sp. The palm Nypa fruticans
and the grasses Porteresia coarctata and Phragmites karka are widespread on the mudflats and along
river banks.
The Sundarban support a very rich and diverse fish fauna of which 120 species are of commercial
importance. The most important species are Eleutheronema tetradactylum, Polynemus paradiseus, Liza
tade, Rhinomugil corsula, Mystus golio, Gonialosa manminua, Hilsa ilisha, Ilisha megaloptera, Coilia
ramcarati, Septipinna phasa, Solephorus tri, Scathophagus argus, Late calcarifer, Otolithoides pama,
Cynoglossus cynoglossus, Thryssa purava, Apocryptes bato, Glossogobius giurus, Odontamlyopus
rubicundus, Harpadon nehereus, Sillago domina and Lepturacanthus savala.
*
IUCN 1989. A Directory of Asian Wetlands.
Bangladesh Environment 29
Over 270 species of birds have been recorded in the Sundarban including 95 species of waterfowl.
Common residents include Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis,
Butorides striatus, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba, Esacus recurvirostris, Vanellus indicus,
Gelochelidon nilotica and Sterna albifrons. The area is also important as a staging and wintering area
for migratory shore birds, gulls and terns.
Forty-two species of mammals still occur in the Sundarban. These include the Royal Bengal tiger,
rhesus macaque, smooth-coated otter, clawless otter, leopard cat, jungle cat, fishing cat, spotted deer,
and wild boar. Recent estimates suggest total populations of about 350 tigers, 40,000 to 70,000 rhesus
macaques, 50,000 to 80,000 spotted deer, 20,000 wild boars and 20,000 smooth-coated otters.
Bangladesh Sundarban together with adjacent Indian Sundarban comprises the largest remaining
natural habitat in the world for tigers. It is also the last refuge in the region for a variety of mammals
which are rare elsewhere in the country. The gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is common in the
rivers and melon-headed dolphin (Peponocephala electra) and several other small crustaceans occur in
the adjacent waters of the Bay of Bengal.
Over 50 species of reptiles and 8 species of amphibians are known to occur. Reptiles include estuarine
crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), snakes (Python molurus, Bungarus caeruleus, B. fasciatus, Naja naja,
Ophiophagus hannah, Vipera russelli, Fordonia leucobalia, Gerardia prevostiana and Hydrophis
caerulescens), and the monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis, V. salvator, and V. flavescens). The
Sundarban now support the only population of the estuarine crocodile numbering less than 200
individuals. Crustaceans account for by far the largest proportion of animal biomass, with fiddler crabs
and mud crabs being particularly abundant. Shrimps and prawns are also abundant and yield a
considerable harvest.
The Sundarban have been exploited since time immemorial and have been managed by the Forest
Department for the last 100 years. The principal economic activities include harvesting of timber,
fishing, and collection of honey, bees wax, golpata (leaves of Nypa fruticans), oyster and shells.
A significant ecological change is taking place in the Sundarban, evident inter-alia, from the creation of
natural blanks which account for about 10 per cent of the forest area, spread of diseases like top dying
of Sundri (Heritiera fomes) and stem borer attack on Keora (Sonneratia apetala). This change is
mainly due to the eastward shifting of the Ganges, abandonment of some distributaries, diversion of
water for irrigation, abnormal reduction of waterflows during the dry winter months, rise of salinity and
groundwater abstraction. About 40 per cent of the dry season flows of the Ganges available at Farakka
has been diverted by India following the completion of Farakka Barrage in 1974; in absence of any
agreement/understanding after 1988, the diversion of flows at Farakka is significantly more. Oil spills
due to the existence of the Port at Mongla on the northern edge of Sundarban is another potential threat
and could cause immense damage, especially to the aquatic fauna and sea-birds.
30 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.5.3 COASTAL ECOSYSTEM **
The
coastal
ecosystem
of
Bangladesh
consists
of
the
complex
delta
of
the
Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) river systems. The systems while flowing through Bangladesh
on its way to Bay of Bengal, carry an estimated annual sediment load of 1.5 - 1.8 billion tons. These
sediments are subjected to coastal dynamic processes generated mainly by river flow, tide and wind
actions, leading to accretion and erosion in the coastal area.
The coastal morphology of Bangladesh is characterized by:
(a)
A vast network of rivers;
(b)
An enormous discharge of river water heavily laden with sediments, both suspended and bed
load;
(c)
A large number of islands in between the channels;
(d)
The Swatch of No Ground (a submarine canyon) running NE-SE partially across the continental
shelf about 24 km south of the Bangladesh coast;
(e)
A funnel-shaped and shallow northern Bay of Bengal, to the north of which the coastal area of Bangladesh
is located;
(f)
Strong tidal and wind actions;
(g)
Tropical cyclones and their associated storm surges.
The entire coast is about 710 km long and can be broadly divided into three distinct physical regions:
the eastern, central and western regions.
2.5.3.1 EASTERN REGION
The eastern coastline extending from the mouth of Feni River to the southern tip of the mainland along
Chittagong is regular and unbroken and is protected along the sea by mud flats and submerged sands.
The famous Cox's Bazar sand beach which is about 75 km long is part of this coast line. The region
includes wetlands like Chakaria Sundarban, Teknaf Peninsula and the Naaf Estuary of international
importance under Ramsar convention.
i. Chakaria Sundarban: Chakaria Sundarban is a complex of newly formed grassy islands, mud
banks, river channels, tidal creeks, aquaculture ponds, mangrove forests and intertidal mudflats in the
estuarine system of Matamuhuri River and several smaller rivers in the Bay of Bengal north of Cox's
Bazar. The mangrove forests formerly covered an area of over 8,000 ha. The dominant species of
**
ESCAP Coastal Environment Management Plan for Bangladesh Vol. 1 and 2.
IUCN 1989. A Directory of Asian Wetlands.
Bangladesh Environment 31
mangroves were Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Avicennia alba, A. officinalis, Bruguiera
gymnorhiza, Ceriops decandra, Dalbergia spinosa, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Phoenix
paludosa, Sonneratia alba, S. apetala and also with a rich invertebrate fauna including the shrimps
Penaeus indicus, P. monodon, Metapenaeus monoceros, M. brevicornis and Palaemon styliferus. Most
of this forest has been cleared for shrimp ponds and other aquaculture projects, but this very act
threatens the sustainability of these very projects. In fact, the tidal surge of 29 April 1991 has caused
immense damage to these projects, proving the point that much of the destruction would have been
prevented if all the forests had not been cut down.
ii. Teknaf Peninsula and the Naaf Estuary: The Teknaf Peninsula is a long, narrow forested
peninsula rising to 300 m above sea level and separating the Bay of Bengal from the lower reaches and
the estuary of the Naaf River. The western shore of the peninsula is a sand beach which extends for
over 75 km in a single stretch and averages about 160 m in width. Sand flats up to two km in width and
patches of dead coral and boulders are exposed at low tide. The Naaf Estuary to the east of peninsula
has extensive mangrove swamps and intertidal mudflats. Much of the western bank of the river has
been converted into rice fields which remain flooded for most of the year.
The dominant mangrove species of the locality are Sonneratia apetala, S. lucida, Avicennia alba, A.
officinalis, Acanthus ilicifolius and Nypa fruticans. Other mangrove species include Excoecaria
agallocha, Ceriops roxburghii and Bruguiera gymnorhiza. The river banks are covered with a dense
growth of Porteresia coarctata. The hills of the Teknaf Peninsula are covered with tropical wet
evergreen and semievergreen forest.
The area is important for a wide variety of waterfowls which include 40 resident and 41 migrant
species. Common residents include Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga
melanogaster, lxobrychus cinnamomeus, Egretta alba, Ardea cinerea, Dendrocygna javanica,
Amaurornis phoenicurus, Gallicrex cinerea, Metopidius indicus, Glareola maldivarum, Vanellus
indicus, V. malabaricus and Gelochelidon nilotica. Common migrants and winter visitors include Anas
acuta, Pluvialis dominica, P. squatarola, Charadrius dubius, C. alexandrinus, C. leschenaultii, C.
mongolus, Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata, Tringa totanus, T. nebularia, Gallinago ssenura, G.
gallinago, Calidris alba, Philomachus pugnax, Larus ridibundus, Chlidonias hybrida and Sterna
hirundo. Large numbers of open-bill storks (Anastomus Oscitans) occur on migration. Other migrants
and winter visitors include Threskiornis melanocephalus, Pseudibis papillosa, Anser indicus, A. anser,
Sarkidiornis melanotos, Haematopus ostralegus, Tringa stagnatilis, Xenus cinereus, Calidris
tenuirostris, Larus ichthyaetus, L. brunnicephalus and Rynchops albicollis. The crab-eating macaque
(Macaca fascicularis) and the monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) occur in the mangroves.
2.5.3.2 CENTRAL REGION
The central region runs East from the Tetulia river to the Feni river estuary and includes the mouth of
the combined GBM rivers. As a result, the region is characterized by heavy sediment input, formation
of Chars (new lands) and bank erosion.
32 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
The general flow of water in this part of the bay is westward, heading towards the Swatch of No
Ground. Consequently, the islands in this region are subject to erosion on their eastern sides and
sedimentation on their western sides. Available maps for different periods suggest massive changes in
the coastline of this region over the past 200 years due to sediments carried by the GBM system and the
action of tides. The net result of these and other factors is an approximate yearly net accretion of 35.6
sq km of land. New land has been formed in the south of Hatiya, Manpura and Bhola islands as well as
near Char Clark, Char Balua and Urir Char on the Noakhali coast. On the other hand, erosion is taking
place mostly in the northeastern part of Bhola, the northern part of Hatiya and the northwestern part of
Sandwip.
i. Hatiya Island and Neighbouring Chars: Hatiya island, the most densely populated and one of the
largest islands of the region, is considered as representative example of the region's wetlands. The
island's shape is continuously changing as a result of erosion and tidal insurgence. The island has been
surrounded by an embankment to protect it from tidal bore. There are extensive intertidal mudflats
outside this embankment in the northwest and southeast side. Neighbouring Chars (low-lying islands)
include Ghasiar Char, Maulavir Char, Shahebani Char, Char Bata, and Nijhum Dweep (Char Osman).
The waters around the islands are brackish, with a tidal rise and fall of about 1 to 2m.
Most of the mudflats that occur along the inland creeks at Char Bata are covered with Porteresia
coarctata, and Saccharum sp. There are also manmade plantations of mangrove such as Sonneratia
apetala and Avicennia sp. in Nijhum Dweep, Ghasiar Char and Char Bata. The vegetation in the
interior of Hatiya Island is similar to those in the mainland and includes Albizia sp., Azadirachta
indica, Streblus asper, Diospyros peregrina, Acacia sp, Anthocephalus chinensis, Ficus bengalensis,
Syzygium sp., Zizyphus sp., Erythrina sp., Cassia fistula, Delonix regia, Phoenix sylvestris, Borassus
flabellifer, Cocos nucifera and various bamboo species.
Common mammals include Platanista gangetica, Canis aureus, Herpestes auropunctatus, Aonyx cinera,
Viverra zibetha and Bandicota indica. Some of the common reptiles include Calotes versicolor,
Mabuiya sp., Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens, Xenochrophis piscator, Naja naja and Lissemys
punctata. The islands are very important staging and wintering areas for a wide variety of waterfowls,
particularly migratory shorebirds. Rashid (1988) recorded over 108,000 waterfowls of 49 species
together with 5,500 unidentified ducks and 56,500 unidentified shorebirds.
2.5.3.3 WESTERN REGION
The western region covers the portion of the Bangladesh coastline westward from the Tetulia river to
the international border located at Hariabhanga River. This region can be termed "Atlantic type" in
which the coastline in general is transverse to the structure of the continental margin. This is a stable
region and is mostly covered with the Sundarban (discussed in detail in section 2.5.2) which lessen
bank erosion so that scouring action is confined to the river channels, which are in general deeper than
those in the other regions. Accretion does not occur much in this region, being mostly concentrated at a
few points. The sediments carried by the rivers of the region flow almost directly South to the Swatch
Bangladesh Environment 33
of No Ground, which exerts a great influence on tidal characteristics, sediment movement and
deposition, and other hydrodynamic and morphological phenomena.
2.5.3.4 COASTAL AFFORESTATION
It is a practice in Bangladesh that as soon as a new formation rises and ecological succession starts with
grass coming up as the first colonizer, the new land is taken over by people and cattle start grazing
thereby retarding the ecological succession. If there had not been this retardation, grass would
eventually be replaced by shrubs and trees. Shallow-rooted grasses when replaced in succession by
deeper-rooted shrubs and trees would have consolidated the newly formed land. Without the
development of deep-rooted vegetation, new formations remain unstable and surface erosion is a
continuous phenomenon. Thus new formations cannot rise much above the surface of water and
stabilize, but are subjected to total surface wash during storm surges or monsoon high tides.
Afforestation and protection in certain areas of the new coastal formations have been attempted and
stable formations are fast appearing around the nucleus forest plantations. Realizing the importance of
coastal afforestation to act as nucleus for stable formation, the Forest Department has undertaken
extensive afforestation projects in the coastal zone. By 1990 an area of about 0.10 million ha has been
planted. Species used in coastal afforestation are Keora (Sonneratia apetala), Baen (Avicennia
officinalis) and Sadda Baen (A. alba). Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) has been planted to a limited
extent. Other species include Acacia arabica and A. catechu in higher land along embankments and
Golpata (Nypa fruticans) in new accretions and lower areas of embankments.
Except mangrove, other major land uses include agriculture where the cropping pattern is dictated by
various factors including salinity. A contributing factor in controlling salinity in the past was a major
investment in the construction of coastal embankment. Recently, however, the spread of shrimp
cultivation has resulted in a weakening of the system through breaches and lack of subsequent repair of
the embankments.
The entire ecosystem can be affected by human activity. Deforestation upstream increases deposits of
sand, silt and clay in the region; changes in the pattern and volume of run-off can be attributed to
irrigation projects; and coastal engineering projects bring about changes in the tidal flushing regime.
Other factors affecting the system include pollutants such as pesticides and pulp mill effluents and oil
spills from the transportation of oil.
2.5.4 JINJIRADWIP CORAL ISLAND ***
The coral island of Jinjiradwip (also known as St. Martin's Island) locally named as Narikeli
Jinjiradwip is situated on the southern-most tip of Bangladesh separated from the mainland by a
***
ESCAP Coastal Environmental Management Plan for Bangladesh. Vol, 2 page 135 - 136.
34 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
channel about 8 km wide. East of the channel lies the Arakan coast of Burma with the Arakan ranges of
hills in the background.
The island is encircled by a cluster of smaller islets. The main island is dumbell-shaped in an
approximately north-south direction and is about 8 km2 in area. The northern-most part is the widest
but at a point in the South the island becomes as narrow as l00 m only. The northern-most part of the
main island is called Jinjira or Uttarpara, the central part Maddhyapara, the southern part Dakshinpara
and the narrowest collar Galachipa. In addition to the main island, there are a number of tiny islets
ranging from 100 to 500 m2 locally known as Siradia or separated island (Figure 5.5).
Most of the island is bounded either by boulders of corals or rocks similar to the sandstones of the
tertiary hills of Chittagong and the Arakan ranges. There are some pure sandy patches along the beach.
In addition, the island has a layer of sand, coquina and conglomers. The main island is formed of two
huge saucer-shaped, underground sandstones of tertiary age. These depressions retain rain water and
are the only source of fresh water for plants, animals and human beings. Thus, fresh water is always in
short supply.
There are live coral beds to the west, south and southeast of Jinjira and the Siradia. There is a coral reef
to the west of Uttarpara. The average height of the island is 3 m with a 10 m high cliff at the highest
point on the island. The cluster of islets that encircle Jinjiradwip remain submerged during high tide but
the Siradia are elevated and have permanent vegetation although the connection between them and
Dakshinpara is submersible. There are two well-defined lagoons on the island, a few brackishwater
pools and some 200 freshwater ditches.
The Uttarpara resembles a typical, thickly populated coastal village of the Indian subcontinent with
haphazardly arranged thatched houses, shopping centres, a fish-landing area and a school. The island is
exposed to cyclones and accompanying storm surges.
There is some stunted mangrove forest in the southwest of the island and the sand dunes support an
extensive growth of Ipomoea pescaprae with some Vitex nigundo and Pandanus odoratissimus.
Besides, there is a rich growth of benthic algae on the island. Together with the brackish water of
Sundarban and other mangroves, Jinjiradwip supports 165 species of algae under 77 genera (Islam,
1976).
Khan (1982) recorded about 10 species of mammals, 80 species of birds, 20 species of reptiles and at
least two species of amphibians on the island. The island is an important wintering area for a wide
variety of migratory shorebirds, gulls and terns and is a nesting area for marine turtles. All the five
species of marine turtles known to occur in Bangladesh have been found in the area, namely Chelonia
mydas, Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata, Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea and
among them the first three species are known to nest in the area (Rashid, 1986). Other reptiles include
Varanus salvator and the sea snakes Laticauda laticauda, L. colubrina and Enhydrina schistosa.
The islanders are basically fishermen. Live corals are collected to feed the booming tourist market. The
villagers use coral boulders to obtain calcium. Eggs of the Olive Ridley turtle (L. olivacea) and the
Bangladesh Environment 35
green sea turtle (C. mydas) are collected and sold in the market. Sea shells are collected to make
articles for the curio shops. Sea urchins and starfish are collected in bulk in the vicinity of the island.
The islanders are heavily dependent on the screw pine (Pandanus spp.), nishinda (V. nigundo) of the
dune vegetation and mangrove formation for their daily supply of firewood and poles for thatched
houses and fences around the cultivated crop fields. This practice has literally destroyed the natural
vegetation of the island.
The human and cattle populations are rapidly increasing on the island. Clearing of the few remaining
areas of limited vegetation is going on unabated. The removal of sandstones and corals has paved the
way for severe erosion. During 1980 to 1984, one-fourth of the beach area of Uttarpara was severely
eroded and went under the sea water. A government effort to erect a barrier of polders on the sandy
beach is depriving the marine turtles of their laying ground. Erosion is also wiping out portions of the
narrowest collar of the island Galachipa. The adverse effects of unhindered withdrawal of corals and
other co-elenterates, molluscs and echinderms are evident.
The coral island of Jinjiradwip, the only one of its kind in Bangladesh, is a unique ecosystem. It was
rich in marine algal resources two decades ago, but has been severely depleted due to physical damage
by the souvenir collectors. Considering its rich biological diversity and the economic benefits to be
derived from its ecosystem by the people living around, the island should be declared as a protected
area. This should help the corals and marine algae to regenerate and save the threatened island from
further deterioration.
36 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
FIGURE 5.5 JINJIRADWIP ISLAND (ST. MARTIN'S ISLAND)
Bangladesh Environment 37
2.5.5 BARIND TRACTS
****
The Barind Tract (known locally as Barendro Bhumi) is located in the centre and west of Rajshahi
Division covering an area of 7,728 km2. It occupies one-fourth of the entire Rajshahi Division. The
Barind Tract represents a series of uplifted blocks of Madhupur Clay. It has a low content of
weatherable sand minerals. The greater part of the tract is almost level and is crossed by only a few
minor rivers. The little Jamuna and Atrai flood plains occupy fault troughs which divide the tract into
three main blocks. The western side of the western block has been tilted up to the west and
subsequently dissected by valleys.
Most of the land is poorly drained and is shallowly flooded by rain water in the rainy season. A
transitional area in the south is more deeply flooded. Better drained soils occur near the northern and
eastern edges.
Except in the West, the difference in elevation between the Barind Tract and adjoining floodplains is
small. Alluvium has shallowly buried fringes of the Barind Tract within the Tista, Little Jamuna, Atrai
and Mahananda floodplains. Agroecologically the Barind Tract is divided into three regions -- Level
Barind Tract, High Barind Tract and Northeastern Barind Tract.
2.5.5.1 LEVEL BARIND TRACT
The Level Barind Tract occupies about 65 per cent of the entire Barind Tract. Its boundaries with other
Barind Tract regions are transitional. Located in Dinajpur, Gaibanda, Jaipurhat, Bogra, Nogaon, Natore
and Sirajganj districts, this tract covers an area of 5,049 km2. Two subregions depending upon the
depth of flooding have been recognized -- Highland and Medium Highland; Medium Lowland and
Lowland.
Although the landscape appears flat, there are slight differences in elevation between the higher parts
on which villages are located and the slight depressions lying between them. Relief is locally irregular
near the entrance of river channels, with shallow gullies cutting back into the adjoining plain land. In
the West, elevations gradually increase as this region merges with the High Barind Tract.
The region is seasonally flooded within field bunds. The whole of the level landscape is poorly drained
in the rainy season.
The Grey Terrace soils are characteristic of the Barind Tract. The predominant soils have a grey, silty,
puddled topsoil and ploughpan. All soils become very dry in the surface layer during the dry season.
The mean annual rainfall is highest in the northeast (2,000 mm) and lowest in the southwest (1,300 to
1,500 mm). Very small amounts of surfacewater are available in rivers and tanks for dry season
****
FAO 1988. Land Resources Appraisal of Bangladesh for Agricultural Development. BGD/81/035
Technical Report 2. Agroecological Regions of Bangladesh. Page 438-475.
Hunt, Joseph M. 1984. Area Development of the Barind Tract. BARC/IADS. Page 15-17.
38 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
irrigation. Groundwater resources are generally good, but become less satisfactory in the West in areas
adjoining the High Barind Tract.
Transplanted aman is the major kharif crop. It is widely preceded by broadcast or transplanted aus in
the East and North. Non-irrigated land generally remains fallow in the dry season. Early rabi crops are
grown where irrigation is available.
2.5.5.2 HIGH BARIND TRACT
The High Barind Tract was previously termed the Dissected Barind Tract. It includes the western part
of the Barind Tract where the underlying Madhupur Clay has been uplifted and cut into deep valleys. It
occupies about 20 per cent of the Barind Tract. The western and southern boundaries of the region are
sharp, but the eastern boundary is transitional. The High Barind Tract is located in Rajshahi,
Nawabganj and Nogaon districts and covers an area of 1,600 km2.
Bangladesh Environment 39
Virtually all the land stands above normal flooding level. Terracing of sloping land during the past two
centuries to hold rainwater on the soil surface for paddy cultivation has greatly reduced the rate of
run-off. Despite the sloping relief, this region has predominantly poorly drained grey soils with silty
topsoil similar to those occurring on the Level Barind Tract. The region lies in the driest part of the
country and is semi-arid in character. The mean annual rainfall is about 1,350 mm.
Limited surface water supplies are available in tanks. Groundwater supplies are generally poor in the
more hilly western part. The predominant landuse is transplanted aman grown as a single crop during
the rainy season. The rest of the year is arid and basically cropless. Development prospects are more
restricted than on the Level Barind Tract.
2.5.5.3 NORTHEASTERN BARIND TRACT
The Northeastern Barind Tract occupies about 15 per cent of the Tract in several discontinuous areas
on the northern and eastern margins. The boundaries with adjoining floodplain regions are mainly
sharp, but are transitional with those of the adjoining areas of the Level Barind Tract. The region is
located in Dinajpur, Rangpur, Gaibanda, Jaipurhat and Bogra districts and covers an area of 1,079 km 2.
This is the only part of the Barind Tract which has red soils similar to those of the Madhupur Tract.
Three subregions have been recognized, separating areas with different proportions of well-drained,
moderately well-drained and poorly drained soils. Most of this region is better drained than the
adjoining land on the Level Barind Tract and in floodplain regions. The region is shallowly flooded in
the rainy season. A few valleys are seasonally deeply flooded and their lower parts remain wet or
submerged throughout the dry season. The mean annual rainfall is highest in the northeast (about 2,000
mm) and decreases to around 1,800 mm in western and southern areas.
Surfacewater supplies are limited to those in tanks and a few Beels. Groundwater is readily available in
the major area in the northeast and is widely exploited by dug wells and tubewells. Field crops include
sugarcane, aus rice, mustard, black gram (mashkalai); with irrigation, potatoes, vegetables, wheat are
grown in addition to rainfed aus paddy.
Evidence of desertification is noticeable in the dry and bare soil conditions on the Barind Tract during
the prolonged dry season. The Barind Tract is considered as an ecologically fragile zone with
extremely low vegetation cover. It has practically no tree cover except in the homesteads. Its organic
matter content of the soils is very low. During high summer temperatures, the moisture-holding
capacity of the silty topsoils especially when puddled for paddy cultivation is low. Puddling of soils for
paddy cultivation in the Kharif season leaves the topsoil dry and hard or powdery in the dry season and
therefore, bare even of weed growth. Powdery topsoil is blown away during the dry season.
Breaking up the existing ploughpan in Grey Terrace and Valley Soils to allow deeper rooting could
destroy their bearing capacity when wet, turning them into a bottomless quagmire in the rainy season
and a hard, solid mass in the dry season. Low moisture holding capacity, low organic matter content
and low natural fertility of the major soils limit the development potential of the Barind Tract for
maximizing crop production.
40 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
The abstraction of groundwater for irrigation is already drawing down dry season water levels in some
areas below the operational level of dug wells and DTWs used to provide domestic water. This
problem is likely to aggravate as tubewell irrigation extends and becomes more intensive.
In an effort to attain food self-sufficiency in the dry land of the Barind Tract, attempts to substitute
dryland crops for paddy cultivation could destabilize the Barind soils.
The Barind Tract is a fragile ecosystem. Ecological deterioration through a long and gradual process
has already created an environmental crisis. The challenge is to create a sustainable agriculture and this
cannot be done unless the ecosystem is not stabilized. The chronic nutritional deficits suffered by soils,
animals and the human population are interrelated, and only integrated landuse planning can save the
situation. An urgent task is to improve the diversity and density of vegetation in the region.
2.5.6 MADHUPUR TRACT
The Madhupur Tract extends over the districts of Dhaka, Gazipur, Narsingdi, Narayanganj, Tangail,
Jamalpur, Mymensingh and Kishoreganj covering an area of 4,244 km2. The boundaries between this
region and adjoining regions generally are sharp. However, they are transitional in the Southwest and
parts of the Southeast where floodplain sediments have buried the dissected edges of the Madhupur
Tract, leaving small hillocks of red soils as `islands' surrounded by floodplain soils.
Three kinds of valley systems dissect this tract, giving rise to significant differences in relief and soils.
The following 6 subregions are recognized:
Level terrace with deep, well drained soils - Level upland areas with deep, mainly well drained and
moderately well drained, red and brown soils. There are few or no valleys.
Dissected terrace with deep, well drained soils - Closely dissected upland areas with deep well
drained red soils on level upland sites, and deep, broad valleys with mainly grey and dark grey heavy
clays.
Dissected terrace with shallow soils and narrow valleys - Closely dissected areas with shallow,
moderately well to poorly drained, mainly brown soils on gently undulating uplands, and mainly grey
silty soils in narrow, shallow valleys.
Dissected terrace with deep and shallow soils - Level upland areas with deep and shallow, poorly
drained, grey, silty soils.
Broad valleys - Broad valleys with mainly dark heavy clays.
Level terrace with shallow, poorly drained soils - Large upland areas with predominantly shallow,
poorly drained, grey silty soils over heavy Madhupur Clay.
The upland areas range from well drained to poorly drained in different subregions. Shallow valleys are
mostly shallowly flooded by rainwater retained within field bunds in the upper parts. Lower parts of
these valleys are shallowly to moderately deeply flooded. Broad valleys are moderately deeply or
Bangladesh Environment 41
deeply flooded. Extensive areas adjoining floodplain regions occupy beels which stay wet or
submerged throughout the year.
Climatic conditions are relatively uniform over the Madhupur Tract. Mean annual rainfall increases
from around 2,000 mm in the south to more than 2,300 mm in the North. Eleven general soil types
occur in the region.
Only limited amounts of surface water are available in rivers and beels, and these are almost fully
exploited. Rivers in the south are tidal in dry season, but they are not saline. Groundwater is generally
available.
Upland areas are mainly under poor coppice sal forest or scrub grassland. Cultivated upland soils grow
poor crops of aus, mesta, groundnut, mustard and mashkalai. Valleys are used for transplanted aus
followed by transplanted aman. With irrigation, HYV boro is followed by transplanted aman.
In the level terrace mainly rainfed aus followed by mashkalai or mustard are grown with jackfruit trees
on field boundaries. Sugarcane, kharif groundnut and mesta are locally important. With irrigation,
wheat, potato, and rabi vegetables are the main crops. Sal forests cover part of the area. The lowest
valley sites remain under water, providing irrigation water which is also used for fisheries.
The Madhupur Tract has complex relief and soil patterns. The broken relief makes it difficult to
provide irrigation channels. Upland soils and Grey Valley Soils have low moisture holding capacity
and low natural fertility. Red soils are strongly phosphate fixing and appear to be deficient in potash,
zinc and sulphur. Grey Terrace and Valley Soils have low structural stability in the silty topsoil and
subsoil. Breaking up the ploughpan would cause loss of bearing capacity when the soils are wet. The
sloping soils on upland edges are vulnerable to erosion. Deep flooding in broad valleys and flash floods
in valleys are common. All the cultivated upland soils are already depleted in organic matter and
fertility due to continued cultivation without adequate return of organic matter and nutrients to the
soils.
42 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
These constraints limit the potentials for agricultural development and render the Madhupur Tract an
ecologically vulnerable region. Over 70 per cent of the sal forest area is either degraded or encroached.
The present land use in the forest area is detrimental to ecological stability. It encourages destruction of
the forest cover resulting in serious ecological imbalance. The imperative is to go for an
environmentally sound integrated landuse planning for sustained development of the entire Madhupur
Tract.
2.5.7 WETLANDS *****
Bangladesh has enormous wetland areas and indeed in the rainy season, about half of the country could
be classified as wetland. The principal wetlands are rivers, streams, shallow freshwater lakes and
marshes (haors, baors and beels), water storage reservoirs, fish ponds and seasonally flooded cultivated
plains.
There are about 700 rivers in Bangladesh, including small mountain streams, meandering seasonal
creeks, muddy channels (khals) and major rivers with their numerous tributaries and distributaries. The
total length of the rivers has been estimated at 24,140 km. All of the rivers with the exception of those
in the Chittagong region, belong to any of the three major river systems, the Ganges-Padma, the
Brahmaputra-Jamuna, the Surma- Meghna.
Numerous haors, mostly found in eastern Mymensingh and Sylhet, in a region known as Haor Basin,
are flooded every year by the monsoon floods and most retain some water throughout the dry season.
There are also numerous baors of various sizes ranging from 50 to 1300 ha and retaining water
throughout the year, in the moribund delta of the Ganges in Kushtia, Jessore and Faridpur. There are
over a thousand beels in the country, the greatest concentration being in the main delta region
(Rajshahi, Pabna, Kushtia, Jessore, Faridpur, Comilla and Noakhali) and the Haor Basin.
There are only three natural lakes in the country: Rainkhyongkine and Bogakine in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, and Ashula Beel at the northern end of the Barind Tract. There is an artificial lake at Kaptai,
created by a dam which was completed in 1963 and has since flooded over 68,800 ha of forested
valleys and cultivated land in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Other artificial water bodies include
thousands of small tanks and fish ponds scattered throughout the country. There are also vast areas of
the low-lying alluvial plains between the rivers, flooded during the rainy season.
Wetlands of the country may conveniently be discussed under two main sub-heads, namely the
Ganges-Brahmaputra Flood Plains and the Haor Basin of greater Sylhet and greater Mymensingh
districts.
i. The Ganges-Brahmaputra Flood Plains: Two mighty rivers, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra,
unite within the country to form one of the largest delta system in the world. The delta covers over
*****
IUCN 1989. A Directory of Asian Wetlands.
Bangladesh Environment 43
one-third of Bangladesh. The flood plains extend from the extreme North and Northwest of the country
to the mouths of the many river channels in the South.
Major rivers include the Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna, and their tributaries and
distributaries such as the Tista, Karatoa, Atrai, Mahananda and Dhaleswari. In addition, there are
hundreds of small meandering seasonal creeks, muddy channels (khals) and irrigation canals. There are
also vast areas of low-lying alluvial plains between the major rivers, flooded during the rainy season.
There are also hundreds of baors and beels of which Chalan Beel was once the largest and best known
in northern Bangladesh and is a good representative of wetland areas of the country. Chalan Beel
located about 50 km west of Sirajgonj in the districts of Natore, Pabna, Sirajgonj and Bogra covered
originally an area of 107,500 ha. It consisted of a series of beels connected to one another by various
channels to form a more or less continuous sheet of water during the rainy season. The water level
remains high as long as the Jamuna is in flood, but with the onset of the dry season, the greater part of
the beel dries out, leaving only a small area of shallow, interconnected water bodies not more than
3,000 ha. As a result Chalan Beel which was formerly a very important wintering area for ducks, geese
and shore birds, is now abandoned by migratory birds except by a few migrant waterfowl.
In addition to the baors and beels, there are over 117,000 ha of small water storage reservoirs (tanks)
and fish ponds, with an average size of about 0.11 ha in the flood plain.
ii. The Haor Basin of Sylhet and Eastern Mymensingh: The Haor Basin of Sylhet and eastern
Mymensingh comprises a vast alluvial plain with mosaic of wetland habitats including numerous
rivers, streams and irrigation canals, large areas of seasonally flooded cultivated plains, and hundreds
of haors and beels. The Haor Basin contains about 400 haors and beels varying in size from a few ha to
several thousand ha. Some of the most important haors and beels are Meda Beel, Tanguar Haor, Aila
Beel, Dekhar Haor, Kuri Beel, Erali Beel, Dubriar Haor, Hakaluki Haor, Kawadighi Haor, and Hail
Haor. The Haor basin is a wetland ecosystem of outstanding international importance. The haors and
beels support major subsistence and commercial fisheries, the seasonally flooded lake margins support
a major rice-growing activity, and the abundant aquatic vegetation provides rich grazing for domestic
livestock and a source of fuel and fertilizers for the local people. The wetlands are home to a wide
variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, including perhaps as many as 100,000 to 150,000 ducks,
and provide a refuge for many other species of wildlife which are becoming increasingly rare
elsewhere in Bangladesh.
The rivers, haors, baors and beels support a very rich fish fauna including many commercially
important species such as Labeo rohita, L. calbasu. L. gonius, Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala, Wallago
attu, Mystus aor, M. tengra, M. vittatus, Puntius spp, Channa sp., Anabas testudineus, Clarius
batrachus, Heteropnuestes fossilis, Notopretus spp. and Hilsa spp. About 150 species of waterfowl
have been recorded, but over 70 of these are now rare and several have not been reported for many
years. Common species include Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax niger, a variety of herons and
egrets, Anastomus oscitans, Leptoptilos javanicus, Threskiornis melanocephalus, several ducks notably
Dendrocygna javanica, Nettapus coromandelianus and Anas acuta, Amaurornis phoenicurus,
44 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
Gallicrex cinerea, Porphyrio porphyrio, Fulica atra, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, Metopidius indicus
and a wide variety of shorebirds, gulls and terns. Mammals associated with the wetlands include the
Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) which is still common in large rivers, and also the fishing cat
Felis viverrina and three species of otter, Lutra lutra, L. perspicillata and Aonyx cinerea.
The wetland resources of Bangladesh are of enormous economic importance. They support fishing and
cultivation of rice. Due to high population density, most of the marshes are now being used extensively
for rice cultivation during dry season. The intensity of fishing is also very high, resulting in depletion
of these resources. During the dry season, large numbers of domestic livestock, mainly cattle and
buffalo, are allowed to graze in the marshes, and the aquatic vegetation is harvested to provide fodder
during the monsoon season. In recent years, the wetlands have also been used for rearing domestic
ducks. The once extensive forests of Barringtonia spp in the Haor Basin and around the flood plain, an
important source of firewood, have been severely depleted. Various herbs and aquatic plants are
collected for use as fuel and fertilizer.
2 . 6 H I S T O RY A N D C U LT U R E
2.6.1 HISTORY
Life, living and culture of the people of Bangladesh have been largely determined by the two great
river systems -- the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. After girdling around the icy peaks of the Himalayas
and traversing through the plains of India they eventually combine in the plains of Bangladesh and,
through innumerable channels, leave behind an alluvial treasure which makes the delta one of the most
fertile regions of the world. The proverbial agricultural plenty, therefore, made it an attractive region
for emigration from various directions.
Historic Bangladesh, with its changing connotations, variously known as Pundravardhana, Samatata,
Gaudadesa, Bangalah, Bangladesh, Bengal, etc., was often a bigger entity. The aggregate of the
geo-political regions of Varendra, Rarha, Suhma, Vanga, Samatata, and Harikela, with minor
contractions and expansions among these constituent units, witnessed more or less a common political,
social, economic and cultural development during the last two-and-a-half millennia of known history.
The latest political boundary of Bangladesh was drawn at the time of the departure of the British and
consequent partition of the sub- continent in 1947. The same political boundary was inherited by the
People's Republic of Bangladesh in 1971.
There are sporadic references of Bangladesh in various epics, particularly in Puranic and Buddhist
literature of uncertain dates in the remote past. Documented history is available from the third century
B.C. emanating from the ruins of Mohasthangarh. The archaeological excavations bear the testimony of
Bangladesh experiencing an imperial culture under the Maurya rulers during the third to the first
century B.C. Emperor Ashoka of this dynasty played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism in
Asia.
Bangladesh Environment 45
There appears to be a void of material evidence till the establishment of the well-known rule of the
Guptas in the fourth century A.D. After the Guptas, a powerful ruler named Sasanka ruled for more
than three decades in the beginning of the seventh century A.D. The famous Chinese traveller Huen
Tsang visited Bangladesh during this period and described a rich socio-economic and cultural life. The
Pala dynasty, which originated within Bangladesh, ruled from the middle of the eighth to the end of the
eleventh century A.D. This dynasty is known for its patronage of art, education and culture. The largest
Buddhist Monastery of the sub-continent, situated at Paharpur in the district of Rajshahi, was built
during the reign of the Palas. This monastery used to be a renowned centre for learning. Pala art and
architecture influenced south and south-east Asia for many centuries. The Buddhist Palas were
followed by Hindu Sena kings who were also patrons of artistic activities. Afterwards different
dynasties of Buddhist and Hindu kings ruled in divided territories till the 13th century A.D.
Muhammad Bakhtiar Khilji, a Muslim adventurer introduced a new epoch in the history and culture of
Bangladesh in 1205 A.D. The first century of Muslim rule was in fact an unsettled period which saw
the conquering generals either quarreling among themselves, or throwing away the central authority of
the Delhi Sultanate and administering the region independently. In the Bangladesh region, the
independent Muslim Sultans became patrons of Bengali language and literature, bringing it out of the
superimposed Sanskrit. The innumerable sufi saints played their dominant role to soothe the
apprehension of nonbelievers and made up for the impudence, if any, of the monarchs. Perhaps
Bangladesh had never witnessed such a social revolution, dynamic but relatively peaceful at the same
time.
In the battle of Polashi (Plassey) in 1757, the British victory over Nawab Sirajuddowla ushered in the
colonial domination by the British. The Nationalist movement for freeing the sub-continent from
British rule commenced in the latter part of the 19th century. The departure of the British and the
partitioning of India into two independent states -- India and Pakistan -- in 1947 and the emergence of
Bangladesh as an independent country in 1971 are recent history.
2.6.2 CULTURE
2.6.2.1 ARCHAEOLOGY
There are 248 monuments and sites protected by the Department of Archaeology of GOB. About half
of these are structures and the remainder are partially excavated or totally untouched mounds and ruins.
The scenario of the conservation of architectural heritage, so long a monopoly of the Department of
Archaeology, is changing. The Bangladesh National Museum is nearing completion of its restoration
of the Ahsan Manzil Palace. The BUET Faculty of Architecture and Chetana, a private group of
architects, are making a survey of historic buildings of Old Dhaka and sixty historic monuments of
Bangladesh, respectively. The Department of Archaeology is engaged with the preservation of
Paharpur monastery and a group of monuments in Bagerhat following a UNESCO Master Plan.
46 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.6.2.2 MUSEUMS
The emergence of the Bangladesh National Museum (incorporating the old Dhaka Museum) in 1983
has been a turning point in the preservation of movable cultural properties. Besides collecting objects
of the cultural and natural heritage of Bangladesh, the Museum is also responsible for acquiring
documents and relics connected with the War of Liberation of Bangladesh. There is a National
Museum for science and technology located at Agargaon, Dhaka.
2.6.2.3 TRADITIONAL CRAFTS
Since Independence, one significant event has been the widespread resurgence of manufacture and
marketing of traditional crafts. Research and new designs are being carried out by BSCIC. Specimens
of traditional crafts are being preserved in the National Museum, Dhaka and Folk Arts Museum at
Sonargaon. National Crafts Council of Bangladesh is trying to organize private efforts for the
promotion of the crafts.
Bangladesh Environment 47
2.6.2.4 FOLKLORE
The folklore of a country plays an important role in the establishment of national identity. Bangla
Academy is the leading institution in the country for collection and preservation of folklore. Several
workshops were held during the last few years. As yet, no initiative has been taken to open a teaching
department of folklore in any of the universities.
2.6.2.5 THEATRE ARTS
The country's theatre arts underwent a dramatic transformation as a result of the independence
movement culminating in the War of Liberation. There are about 250 theatre groups in Bangladesh.
Dhaka, the
capital city, still lacks a proper
theatre. Jahangirnagar University has introduced a
Department of Drama and Dramatics.
The folk theatre, i.e., Jatra, is in a precarious position threatened with lack of patronization on one side
and intrusion of crude unrelated dances etc. on the other. Cinema is facing a serious challenge from the
onslaughts of video clubs and fast moving to unrealistic mythical stories.
2.6.2.6 MUSIC AND DANCE
Music is the most popular element in the sphere of cultural activities in Bangladesh. The partition of
1947 saw the migration of a large number of rich Hindu patrons of music. Since then, Bangladesh has
been gradually becoming weaker in the domain of classical music, the fundamental basis of all elitist
musical traditions. There are privately owned part-time music schools, all in urban areas, which run
two-hour-a-day and two-day-a-week classes for separate groups learning various kinds of music, both
vocal and instrumental. The newly established Nazrul Institute has been charged with collecting
original records of songs of Nazrul Islam. The Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy maintains 40 district
units of music teaching with part-time teachers. The only Government College of Music, at Dhaka, has
yet to make its presence felt. There is no arrangement of preserving music except with the
Transcription Services of Radio Bangladesh.
2.6.2.7 TRIBAL CULTURE
There are some 30 tribes in Bangladesh and their total population is less than a million, but they are an
important cultural element in the country. About 50 per cent of the tribal population live in three Hill
Tracts districts of Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban. The major tribes in this region are Chakma,
Mong, Mru (Murung), Tripura and Lushai. Other major tribes are Manipuri and Khasia in greater
Sylhet district, Garo in Tangail and Mymensingh districts and Santhal in the western districts. The rest
are distributed in small numbers in other districts.
There are institutes for tribal culture at Birishiri, Rangamati and Bandarban. They receive financial
grants from the Government.
48 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.6.2.8 VISUAL ARTS
Visual arts are taught both in the graduate and post-graduate levels in and under the universities. The
Bangladesh National Museum has the largest collection of modern paintings and sculptures. It has also
the best conservation laboratory in the country. The Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy also collects
modern art and organizes national and international exhibitions. The Zainul Abedin Sangrahashala in
Mymensingh has 70 works of the great master but is beset with problems of maintenance and
preservation.
2.6.2.9 LIBRARIES
The Bangladesh National Library is still in its infancy. Government Public Libraries in the districts are
barely surviving. The Government financial grant to the non-Government public libraries are
inadequate.
2 . 7 N E E D F O R A N AT I O N A L C O N S E RVAT I O N S T R AT E G Y O F B A N G L A D E S H
The government of Bangladesh is committed to conserve its natural resources through a series of
international treaties, conventions and also by its constitution. These have been reflected through the
documents approved by the government and the Parliament, and by the commitments made by our
Prime Minister in various international forums.
In this section, we present excerpts from the
constitution, and Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper of the Government of Bangladesh, and
WSSD declaration and the Millennium Development Goals, where the government of Bangladesh is
pledge-bound to fulfill its objectives.
2.7.1 CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH
The constitution of Bangladesh did not refer to environment directly, however, Article 23, 24, 31 and
32 provides oblique references to conservation and the rights of the nature. Article 23 and 24 refers to
conservation of cultural heritages, and articles 31 and 32 refer to protection of life by law.
Article 23, Part II of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that the State shall adopt measures to
conserve the cultural traditions and heritage of the people that all people will have an opportunity to
contribute towards and to participate in the enrichment of the national culture.
Article 24 follows up by stating that the State shall adopt measures for the protection against
disfigurement, damage or removal of all monuments, objects or places of special artistic or historic
importance or interest.
Articles 31 and 32 of Part III of the Bangladesh Constitution creates a justification that no action
detrimental to the life, liberty, body, reputation or property of any person shall be taken except in
accordance with law, and no person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty save in accordance with
the law.
Bangladesh Environment 49
Article 15 on the other hand states, “It shall be a fundamental responsibility of the State to attain,
through planned economic growth, a constant increase of productive forces and a steady improvement
in the material and cultural standard of living of the people, with a view to securing to its citizens- (a)
the provision of the basic necessities of life, including food, clothing, shelter, education and medical
care; (b) the right to work, that is the right to guaranteed employment at a reasonable wage having
regard to the quantity and quality of work; (c) the right to reasonable rest, recreation and leisure; and
(d) the right to social security, that is to say to public assistance in cases of undeserved want arising
from unemployment, illness or disablement, or suffered by widows or orphans or in old age, or in other
such cases.”
Fulfillment of the commitment of the state to its citizen according to the Article 15 requires that the
government must pursue the goal of sustainable development so that all future generations of citizens
have the similar guarantee in terms of provisioning of the basic necessities of life, right to work and
recreation and leisure.
2.7.4 THE FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1997-2002)
The last Five Year Plan of the government also highlighted the need for protecting the environment for
the betterment of the people of Bangladesh. It further reiterates that based on the Agenda 21, the
government of Bangladesh is pledged bound to publish the National Conservation Strategy for
Bangladesh.
Fourteen specific issues of our environment were documented in the plan. These are implementation of
the Bangladesh Environment Act 1995 (in 1997 the Government has published an SRO to regulated
activities under the Act), sustainable development of agricultural resources, conservation of
biodiversity, biomass consumption and emission of carbon issue, impact of use of chemical fertilizer
and pesticides, industrial pollution, deforestation, conservation of fisheries resources and the wetland,
conservation of the mangrove forests, conservation of the coastal and marine resources, salinity,
urbanization and pressure on resource utilization due to increasing economic activities.
The Plan envisaged that approval of the Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (BNCS) is an
important step towards achieving the objectives and it would help the government integrate the
policies on environment with the policies on development.
2.7.3 INTERIM POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY PAPER (I-PRSP)
The IPRSP document that has been accepted by the government has also emphasized the linkage
between poverty and environment. It has mentioned, “factors influencing poverty like inadequate
access to physical asset bases, preponderance of risks, uncertainties and vulnerabilities and spatial
problems affecting livelihoods and crisis coping capacities do indeed originate from environmental
factors and one can, therefore, find certain linkages between the two.”
It has further added that the
complementarities that exists between nature and economic development must be harnessed to promote
development and for this environment must the protected from degradation and overuse. The impact of
this is ultimately borne by the weaker and the poor people of the society. It has also highlighted that
50 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
the shrinking of the commons would lead to deprivation and eventual erosion of income for present as
well as future generation.
IPRSP therefore suggested that environmental conservation would be integrated into national poverty
alleviation strategies and that the environment strategy will draw upon the Environmental Policy 1992,
the Dhaka Declaration 2000, the National Environmental Management Plan (NEMAP), and the
Declaration of the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 and NGOs working in the area of
environment.
2.7.4 WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (WSSD)
Resolution 5 of the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development (WSSD) states,
“we
assume a collective responsibility to advance and strengthen the interdependent and mutually
reinforcing pillars of sustainable development – economic development, social development and
environmental protection – at local, national, regional and global levels.” In this Summit, the world
leaders has finally agreed to put sustainable development as the agenda for success and to alleviate
poverty. The summits also stated “Loss of biodiversity continues, fish stocks continue to be depleted,
desertification claims more and more fertile land, the adverse effects of climate change are already
evident, natural disasters are more frequent and more devastating and developing countries more
vulnerable, and air, water and marine pollution continue to rob millions of a decent life.”
Furthermore, “globalization has added a new dimension to these challenges. The rapid integration of
markets, mobility of capital and significant increases in investment flows around the world have
opened new challenges and opportunities for the pursuit of sustainable development. But the benefits
and costs of globalization are unevenly distributed, with developing countries facing special difficulties
in meeting this challenge.”
Given these new opportunities and challenges, the Government of Bangladesh shall adopt a National
Conservation Strategy to ensure that our endeavor to achieve sustainable development succeeds.
2.7.5 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS)
UNs Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted at the dawn of the new millennium in
September 2000 and it has further reaffirmed that member countries must spare no opportunity to free
all of humanity, and above all our children and grand children from the threat of living on a planet
irredeemably spoilt by human activities.
On 6-8 September 2000 the world leaders also reaffirmed
their support for the principle of sustainable development including those set out in Agenda 21, and
agreed upon at the UN Conference on Environment and Development.
In MDG, 7 member countries are expected to integrate principles of sustainable development into
country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources. The target
recognizes that the environment is often overlooked by policy makers and the key to achieve
sustainable development is by integrating policies to ensure that the process of loss of environmental
resources is reversed. Some of the important aspect of environmental degradation for Bangladesh is
degradation of land and water resources, and loss of biodiversity and forest resources.
Bangladesh Environment 51
Within the framework of the declaration the world leaders also resolved that they would adopt in all
their environmental actions a new ethic of conservation and stewardship, and would intensify efforts
for conservation and sustainable development of all types of resources.
Consequently, it is clear that by adopting the Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy
(BNCS), the Government of Bangladesh would not only reinforce its national and international
commitments for conservation of resources and sustainable development but would also
strengthen the economy for today and for the future.
2.7.6 SYNERGY WITH OTHER KEY NATIONAL DOCUMENTS
This section is an addendum of the latest revisions conducted in 2010 against its draft final submission
in 2007, with a view to validate BNCS’s timeliness and concurrence with recent key national
documents. This section elucidates synergy of BNCS with Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and
Action Plan (2009) and National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction II (2009-2011)
concerning issues related to conservation.
2.7.6.1 WATER CONSERVATION
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
The NCS’s main goals are to
develop the major rivers such as
the Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Meghna to meet medium to long
term water supply, interregional developments for
multi-purpose use of water, cost
effective measures for erosion
control and flood proofing and
adaptation measures. It also
emphasizes on water
management and usages
particularly in dry season,
choice of species and crop
rotation. Conducting research on
the possible effects of sea-level
rise and climate change on the
river systems is also a priority.
Due to increasing prevalence of
droughts, salinity intrusion and
reduced surface and ground
water availability, BCCSAP
focus on investments that will
be required in deep set ground
water technologies, conservation
of water and rainfall harvesting.
The PRSP’s main concerns are
developing major rivers for
hydropower, riverbank erosion
control and adequate water
supply. Other measure include
disaster protection such as
cyclones through warning
systems, flood shelters, storm
water drainage through existing
FCD’s and rationalization of
groundwater during disasters.
The PRSP wishes to maintain
adequate levels of usable water
for farm practices in the future
even through the effects of
climate change.
Both the NCS and the PRSP have identical goals when it comes to the water conservation. The Climate
Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009) has emphasis on ground water preservation but its goals for
surface water retention can easily be integrated with the NCS’s and PRSP’s plans for the development
of the major rivers. All three have great concerns about the effects of climate change on inland waters
and all three want the development of training facilities at NGO’s and Universities to educate people on
the repercussions of mismanaging the countries water resources. The main theme is to preserve safe
water for human and sustainable livelihood.
52 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
2.7.6.2 AGRICULTURE
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
Special support for data
collection and conservation of
local varieties of seeds which are
resistant to deleterious climates
and diseases. Conservation and
production of improved seeds,
crop rotation and diversification,
improvement in irrigation and
efficiency, and good water
management are focus of NCS.
Especial focus is emphasized for
coastal agriculture for its
development against the
backdrop of climate change and
variability. Genetic engineering
to develop hybrids more
resistant to changing climatic
conditions such as high salinity
is also emphasized.
BCCSAP is aimed at
maintaining food security for
future generations through
research into new varieties of
crops which are drought
resistant, salinity tolerant and
with high immunity to diseases.
Maintaining a seed supply for
all different kinds of agroclimatic zones.
Mostly concerned with
increasing yield by supporting
disease resistant crops, varieties
which are defiant to high
salinity and tolerant to other
harsh aspects of the
environment. The PRSP’s main
concern is maintaining food
security in the face of the
changing climate.
All three proposals are aimed at only one aspect, maintaining food security and high agricultural output
in the face of climate change. The development of new sturdier strains is of the utmost importance
through conservation and development of local cultivars. The PRSP in more willing to supply
fertilizers and additional agricultural inputs such as machinery but it is also in favour of the tentative
use of genetic augmentation.
2.7.6.3 FISHERIES
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
NCS for development of
fisheries sector, focuses - on
improvements in fish ecology
and diversity by ensuring proper
conservation of wetlands and
flood plains, discourages
conversion of wetlands into
other landuses, proper research,
provisioning for fish migration
in the flood control and drainage
infrastructures, conservation of
gene pool; on improvements of
coastal and marine fisheries
through implementation of
policies, survey and sustainable
exploration of marine resources,
and establishment of marine
reserve; on implementation of
projects that will enhance
capacity of the Fisheries dept. as
well as communities in habitat
and ecosystem management; on
Training and developing staff
for the proper management of
the fisheries sector. The effects
of climate change on marine
and freshwater fisheries sector
as well as the shrimp fisheries
sector. The development of
adaptive measures to deal with
the changes in fisheries caused
by climate change.
Predominantly focused on the
intensification of aquaculture,
through small-scale pond carp
polyculture, small-scale cage
culture, shrimp and prawn
culture. Increasing the output of
marine and backwater fisheries.
There are also aspects of
conservation related to the
fisheries strategies of the PRSP
as it aims for the perseverance of
endangered fish species by
creating sanctuaries in rivers
and water bodies and change in
management regime like that of
NCS. There is also a sector for
the development of human
resources in NGO’s, the public
and private sector of fisheries to
increase overall productivity.
Bangladesh Environment 53
reducing industrial pollutions
and promotion of sustainable
environmental friendly practices
in agriculture; on improvement
in fishing practices and use of
gears; on change in management
regime by transferring authority
from DC to DOF, by introducing
community based management,
use of indigenous knowledge
and research.
The NCS does not monitor climatic effects on fisheries but does monitor spawning capabilities in flood
plains. The BCCSAP monitors the effect of climate change on fisheries and develops adaptive
measures. The PRSP is predominantly concerned with increasing the output of fisheries. Climate
change will cause increased flooding and effect fisheries output so there is a clear and present synergy
between all three ideologies on the fisheries sector.
2.7.6.4 LIVESTOCK
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
NCS does promote national
breeding programs to increase
dairy and poultry productivity.
Vaccination programs at village
level, breeding programs and
disease control, and
improvement in draught power
in cattle are high on its agenda.
The marketing of livestock is
also of importance.
Asses’ potential threats to
livestock and poultry as a result
of disease prevalence due to
climate change. The need to
combat this factor through
adaptive measures designed by
the improvement of veterinary
services.
Like the NCS the PRSP
promotes disease control in
poultry and livestock. It
emphasizes the need for
technological innovations to
increase meat production, dairy
and poultry output, export of
meat products and upgraded bio
security options. The use of
better more economically
feasible seed grains for feed is
one of its priorities.
As for livestock all three are involved in increasing and maintaining livestock output through improved
breeding and disease control.
2.7.6.5 FOREST RESOURCES
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
The NCS proposes aggressive
aforestation on the shoulders of
roads and highways and new
mud flats. Coastal regions are of
particular significance.
The BCCSAP’s reasons behind
aggressive aforestation are not
only guided by conservation but
for the purpose of carbon
sequestration. Plants which are
more efficient at reducing
carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere are more favoured
for aforestation purposes.
Similar to the NCS the PRSP
supports the protection of
protected areas, rapid
aforestation, it publicizes the
need for conservation and the
rehabilitation of degraded forest
ecosystems like in the
Chittagong hill tracts. But it
plays particular importance on
It is also highly involved in the
management and development
54 Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy (volume 2, part I)
of protected forest areas. The
regeneration of previously
degraded forest area for
conservation and to maintain the
commercial supply of wood.
NCS publicizes the
environmental significance of
trees. It wants to regenerate
degraded land areas to ensure
the survival of pristine
ecosystems such as the
Chittagong hill tracts. The NCS
also has a separate wing to
manage and keep up to date
such programmes involved in
forest regeneration and
rehabilitation.
BCCSAP target areas for
aforestation include the coastal
regions to combat sea level rise
and the wetlands to mitigate
wave erosion.
the need for generating a
commercial source of wood as
fuel and constructive purposes.
In addition it supports carbon
sequestration, water
conservation, prevention of
desertification and adaptation to
climate change through
aforestation.
All three have different reasons for conducting the same practices. The main theme is the rejuvenation
of degraded forest land and the preservation of existing areas.
2.7.6.6 URBANIZATION, ENERGY AND MINERALS
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
NCS promotes the use of energy
efficient cooking stoves and
kitchen design to reduce indoor
pollution. Efforts are made to
find renewable energy sources
such as solar and wind power.
Efforts are also made to
popularize energy efficient
technology, current energy
fields such as natural gas are
still supported and ways of
increasing the efficiency of using
current energy sources such as
oil and coal are developed.
Studies the future energy needs
of the country to check the
feasibility of alternate energy
sources. Energy efficiency is
increased all sectors of private
and public institutions
including industries, agriculture
and transport etc through
proper policy making and
legislations. Invests in reservoir
and gas exploration. Also
monitors the feasibility of coal
mining. Additional research is
conducted on all forms of
renewable energy and energy
efficient technology.
Promotes the use of energy
efficient cooking stoves. Improve
the efficiency of existing
technology while at the same
time develop new alternate
sources of power.
There are also programmes
looking into land sites set aside
as landfills. Proper disposal of
municipal waste, alternate
methods of looking into solid
waste management such as
composting and community
based waste disposal.
The designation of urban waste
dumps is significant not only for
the containing methane levels
but for setting up power plants
to make use of the methane as a
potential power source.
The PRSP suggests the
improvement of infrastructure
such as roads and highways to
facilitate urban expansion. It
aims to incorporate spatial,
economic, aesthetic,
environmental and cultural
aspects of urban life to create a
poverty free urban community
with easy access to healthcare,
education and security. The
main aspect is to ensure planned
expansion instead of
spontaneous urbanization.
The notions of the NCS, BCCSAP and the PRSP are the same, it is important to develop new forms of
energy hand in hand with increasing the efficiency of our already existing technologies and energy
sources. In the field of urbanization the NCS and the BCCSAP are looking at waste disposal and
pollution control. The PRSP is planning on a structured urbanization system. The two policies go hand
Bangladesh Environment 55
in hand as a planned urbanization scheme cannot be completed without proper means of waste disposal
and pollution control.
2.7.6.7 HUMAN RESOURCES, ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT & GENDER
All these three national documents emphasize on human resource development through traditional and
especially vocational training for under utilized population like unemployed youth and particularly
women. All these three policy documents envision entrepreneurship development as an output of skill
development training. The PRSP II provided especial emphasis and made provisions for enabling
environment for the development of the same. The BNCS wants more engagement of women in the
field of conservation, the BCCSAP wants women to be considered in decisions making processes in
natural resource management and resource mobilization issues and the PRSP wants more women in the
industrial and agricultural sector.
2.7.6.8 DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
National Conservation Strategy
Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan
PRSP (II)
NCS provide emphasis on
improvements in flood and
cyclone forecasting system, with
criteria in addition to the
forecasted water levels like
sufficient lead time, possible
areas of inundation, and clarity
of warning information. With
regard to infrastructure, it
supports raising of
communication network and
embankments to reduce
vulnerability, identification and
establishment at proper spatial
locations of cyclone shelters with
adequate supply of water,
provision for women and
additional high grounds for
livestock. Coastal afforestation
as natural barrier has been
highly recommended. It also
recommended conducting
awareness campaigns and
preparedness drills before the
cyclone season. Drainage
system in the flood, cyclone
and/or disaster zones has been
proposed for improvement.
Same goals as the NCS but it do
not mention any livestock
protection or separate treatment
facilities for women.
Measures include the
development of more efficient
warning systems and a means of
monitoring climate variability
such as droughts. A proper
communication system which is
resilient to disasters such as
cyclones, with an open
communication channel
emergency plans can be
conducted with relative ease.
The BCCSAP also understands
the need to develop proper
disaster warning systems which
are easily disseminated through
surrounding areas to minimize
the effects of disasters on the
population. Drainage systems
should be available not only for
the disaster zones during floods
but in towns and cities as well
to prevent water logged roads,
the drainage system should
comprise of not only structural
but non-structural adaptations
as well which is a common
belief with the NCS. Both agree
that towns and cities should
receive higher protection due to
their political and economic
significance.
Places greater emphasis on
disaster relief to women and
more vulnerable groups.
Both the NCS and the BCCSAP understand the requirements of having a proper warning system for
natural disasters and the existence of the required facilities to aid people after a catastrophe. The PRSP
has the same train of thought.