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Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE)
Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE)

... production facility in Illinois, which will use the existing accelerator complex of Fermilab along  with some new structures that remain to be built; and a detector in South Dakota, currently under  construction. The experiment's primary goal is to investigate the process of neutrino oscillation,  i ...
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... The aim of this chapter is to understand how certain combinations of N neutrons and Z protons form bound states and to understand the masses, spins and parities of those states. The known (N, Z) combinations are shown in Fig. 2.1. The great majority of nuclear species contain excess neutrons or prot ...
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... neutral, under certain interactions they may lose or gain electrons, thereby losing the electrical neutrality and gaining a net charge – which effectively turns the atoms into ions. This eventually shows, that an electron need not be bound to an atom always – given a favorable energetic situation, i ...
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X Rays and Gamma Rays: Crookes Tubes and Nuclear Light

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Antimatter

In particle physics, antimatter is material composed of antiparticles, which have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but opposite charges, as well as other particle properties such as lepton and baryon numbers and quantum spin. Collisions between particles and antiparticles lead to the annihilation of both, giving rise to variable proportions of intense photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and less massive particle–antiparticle pairs. The total consequence of annihilation is a release of energy available for work, proportional to the total matter and antimatter mass, in accord with the mass–energy equivalence equation, E = mc2.Antiparticles bind with each other to form antimatter, just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a positron (the antiparticle of the electron) and an antiproton (the antiparticle of the proton) can form an antihydrogen atom. Physical principles indicate that complex antimatter atomic nuclei are possible, as well as anti-atoms corresponding to the known chemical elements. Studies of cosmic rays have identified both positrons and antiprotons, presumably produced by collisions between particles of ordinary matter. Satellite-based searches of cosmic rays for antideuteron and antihelium particles have yielded nothing. There is considerable speculation as to why the observable universe is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to a more even mixture of matter and antimatter. This asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this inequality between particles and antiparticles developed is called baryogenesis.Antimatter in the form of anti-atoms is one of the most difficult materials to produce. Antimatter in the form of individual anti-particles, however, is commonly produced by particle accelerators and in some types of radioactive decay. The nuclei of antihelium (both helium-3 and helium-4) have been artificially produced with difficulty. These are the most complex anti-nuclei so far observed.
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