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SPH4UI
SPH4UI

... this movement. The concept of electric potential can be applied to a simple battery-powered electric circuit. Work must be done on a positive test charge to move it through the battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This work would increase the potential energy of the charge an ...
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... many skills beyond those necessary to complete the task at hand. Always ready with unforeseen questions, he has repeatedly challenged me to understand things more deeply, and to recognize honestly the boundaries of my own understanding. But above all, he has been a constant reminder of what drew me ...
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... corpuscles that Thomson had discovered were indeed subatomic and carried a unit electric charge. Millikan (1862-1953) commenced his work on measuring the charge carried by the electron (as corpuscles were now known) in 1910. At this time Millikan was in his 40’s, was teaching in Chicago and had not ...
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... the Hall term and the associated whistler dynamics were included in the model.5 Similarly, the rate of collisionless reconnection was found to be independent of the electron mass,6,7 which is a consequence of the electron flux away from the x-line ⌫ = cAede being independent of mass; for smaller me ...
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... to study its features. With the benefit of hindsight, we can say that suitably interpreted, the predictions of KG are in reasonable agreement with experimental findings concerning relativistic spin-less particles (such as pionic atoms). Ultimately, this is the physical justification to study it. The ...
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... into contact with objects that have been rubbed. These forces are attributed to a fundamental property of the constituents of atoms known as charge. The forces between particles that are not moving or that are moving relatively slowly are known as electrostatic forces. We start our study in the firs ...
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... whereas an electric force is the electrical influence of the field on a test charge placed in the electric field. The force is only produced when another charge is placed in the field, whereas the field can exist without the presence of the test charge. 2. A field theory was necessary to explain “ac ...
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... adding charges to the square, one at a time, and determining the electric potential energy at each step. According to Equation 19.3, the electric potential energy EPE is the product of the charge q and the electric potential V at the spot where the charge is placed, EPE = qV. The total electric pote ...
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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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