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eOVERm10-11a
eOVERm10-11a

Physics 202 Final Exam, Solutions
Physics 202 Final Exam, Solutions

Enhanced Symmetries and the Ground State of String Theory
Enhanced Symmetries and the Ground State of String Theory

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eOVERm10
eOVERm10

... Helmholtz coils is given by the equation ...
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PHYS 415 Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics

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... Estimate the length L of the cable required in order to generate an emf of 1 kV.  ...
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CHAPTER 3: The Experimental Basis of Quantum Theory

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tutorial 2: answer

... Solution: Draw Gaussian surface: ...
abstract.
abstract.

... strongly linked with the feeling that, as Michel Le Bellac puts it, “even if the non-locality of quantum mechanics is not in contradiction with special relativity, at best, what we observe is a kind of pacific coexistence between them”[3]. The author wondered - and still does - whether the possibili ...
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Homework # 3 Solutions

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Review of GAGUT.doc - Mathematics Department of SUNY Buffalo

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Relativistic Particles and Fields in External Electromagnetic Potential

25-4,5,6,7,8
25-4,5,6,7,8

... In a parallel-plate capacitor, neglecting fringing, the electric field has the same value at all points between the plates. Thus, the energy density u—that is, the potential energy per unit volume between the plates—should also be uniform. We can find u by dividing the total potential energy by the ...
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Homework #2 Solutions Version 2

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Student Text, pp. 650-653

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1993 AP Physics B Free-Response

... a. Determine the maximum frequency of the x-rays produced by the tube. b. Determine the maximum momentum of the x-ray photons produced by the tube. An x-ray photon of the maximum energy produced by this tube leaves the tube and collides elastically with an electron at rest. As a result, the electron ...
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Bose-Einstein spin condensates: revisiting the Einstein

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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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