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Exact solutions and the adiabatic heuristic for quantum Hall states
Exact solutions and the adiabatic heuristic for quantum Hall states

Effective gravitational interactions of dark matter axions
Effective gravitational interactions of dark matter axions

... We assume that the operator OI(t) does not contain the creation/annihilation operators of ζ and the in-state |in> vanishes by the annihilation operator of ζ. ...
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Suppression of secondary electron emission from the material
Suppression of secondary electron emission from the material

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Evidence for negative charging of the lunar surface in shadow

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... that each neutron has a non-zero magnetic dipole moment. In other words, part of the nature of a neutron is that it acts like a very tiny bar magnet. The cause of the magnetism of a neutron is thought to be circulating charges within the neutron; remember that neutrons are composed of three quarks, ...
Physical Composition
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... A slab of insulating material has a nonuniform positive charge density ρ = Cx2, where x is measured from the center of the slab, as shown in the figure below, and C is a constant. The slab is infinite in the y and z ...
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University Physics: Waves and Electricity Ch22

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particle level: forces and fields

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Solutions - UCSB C.L.A.S.

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notes - Quia

... contraction is partially into the volume of space occupied by the core electrons the energy of these subshells electrons is raised by repulsion between the subshell electrons and the core electrons. a subshell's energy rises as its ℓ quantum number increases when inner electrons are present Order of ...
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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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