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Majorana solutions to the two
Majorana solutions to the two

CHEM 322 - Queen`s Chemistry
CHEM 322 - Queen`s Chemistry

... Method: The course will be taught by Peter Loock, who has research interests in experimental research on electronically excited states. Each spectroscopic technique will be first introduced using fundamental QM principles, and then expanded by introducing practical applications. Evaluation: The cour ...
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... Method: The course will be taught by Peter Loock, who has research interests in experimental research on electronically excited states. Each spectroscopic technique will be first introduced using fundamental QM principles, and then expanded by introducing practical applications. Evaluation: The cour ...
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... Explanation. Since average kinetic energy and T are proportional, if the average kinetic energy does not go up, T will not go up (or more properly worded, if T stays the same, the average kinetic energy must stay the same). Since energy is conserved, if energy transfers into a system (net), it must ...
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... Base your answers to questions 78 and 79 on the information below. A glass tube is filled with hydrogen gas at low pressure. An electric current is passed through the gas, causing it to emit light. This light is passed through a prism to separate the light into the bright, colored lines of hydrogen’ ...
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X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy



X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a surface-sensitive quantitative spectroscopic technique that measures the elemental composition at the parts per thousand range, empirical formula, chemical state and electronic state of the elements that exist within a material. XPS spectra are obtained by irradiating a material with a beam of X-rays while simultaneously measuring the kinetic energy and number of electrons that escape from the top 0 to 10 nm of the material being analyzed. XPS requires high vacuum (P ~ 10−8 millibar) or ultra-high vacuum (UHV; P < 10−9 millibar) conditions, although a current area of development is ambient-pressure XPS, in which samples are analyzed at pressures of a few tens of millibar.XPS is a surface chemical analysis technique that can be used to analyze the surface chemistry of a material in its as-received state, or after some treatment, for example: fracturing, cutting or scraping in air or UHV to expose the bulk chemistry, ion beam etching to clean off some or all of the surface contamination (with mild ion etching) or to intentionally expose deeper layers of the sample (with more extensive ion etching) in depth-profiling XPS, exposure to heat to study the changes due to heating, exposure to reactive gases or solutions, exposure to ion beam implant, exposure to ultraviolet light.XPS is also known as ESCA (Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis), an abbreviation introduced by Kai Siegbahn's research group to emphasize the chemical (rather than merely elemental) information that the technique provides.In principle XPS detects all elements. In practice, using typical laboratory-scale X-ray sources, XPS detects all elements with an atomic number (Z) of 3 (lithium) and above. It cannot easily detect hydrogen (Z = 1) or helium (Z = 2).Detection limits for most of the elements (on a modern instrument) are in the parts per thousand range. Detection limits of parts per million (ppm) are possible, but require special conditions: concentration at top surface or very long collection time (overnight).XPS is routinely used to analyze inorganic compounds, metal alloys, semiconductors, polymers, elements, catalysts, glasses, ceramics, paints, papers, inks, woods, plant parts, make-up, teeth, bones, medical implants, bio-materials, viscous oils, glues, ion-modified materials and many others.XPS is less routinely used to analyze the hydrated forms of some of the above materials by freezing the samples in their hydrated state in an ultra pure environment, and allowing or causing multilayers of ice to sublime away prior to analysis. Such hydrated XPS analysis allows hydrated sample structures, which may be different from vacuum-dehydrated sample structures, to be studied in their more relevant as-used hydrated structure. Many bio-materials such as hydrogels are examples of such samples.
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