Download ARABIC ISLAMIC WORLD

ISLAM
THE FIRST TRANSREGIONAL CIVILIZATION
CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD
PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA
• The Arabian peninsula
– Largely deserts with mountains, oases
– Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen
– Nomadic Bedouin
•
•
•
•
•
Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia
Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels
Organized in family and clan groups
Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan
Many tribes seem to have been matrilineal with some rights for women
• Post-classical Arabia
– Romans (Byzantines) and Persians had client kingdoms in area
– Active in long-distance over land trade
•
•
•
•
Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen
Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast
Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen and Abyssinia
Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh
– Religion was polytheist
– Groups of Jews in Arabia; Monophysite Christians in cities
6TH CENTURY ARABIA
PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA
MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE
• Muhammad ibn Abdullah
–
–
–
–
Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.
Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle
Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595
Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths
• Muhammad's spiritual transformation
– At age 40, he experienced visions
•
•
•
•
There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")
Allah would soon bring judgment on the world
The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad
Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing
• The Quran
–
–
–
–
Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death
Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam
Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest
A work of magnificent poetry
• The Hadith
– Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran
– Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect
THE HIJRA (FLIGHT)
•
Conflict at Mecca
–
–
–
•
His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca
Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants
Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba
The hijra
–
–
•
Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.
The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar
The umma
–
–
–
–
•
Organized a cohesive community called umma in Medina
Led commercial adventure
Sometimes launched raids against Mecca caravans
Helped the poor and needy
The "seal of the prophets"
–
–
Referred himself as "seal of the prophets," - final prophet of Allah
Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem
•
•
–
Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book”
If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected
Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind
CONQUEST OF ARABIA
• Muhammad's return to Mecca
– Conquered Mecca, 630
– Imposed a theocratic government dedicated to Allah
– Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques
• The Kaa'ba
– The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed
– In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba
• The Five Pillars of Islam
– Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars
– The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith
– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan
• Islamic law: the sharia
–
–
–
–
–
Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad
Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life
Drew laws, precepts from the Quran
Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith
Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life
SYMBOLS OF ISLAM
EXPANSION OF ISLAM
• The caliph
– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")
– Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander
– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers
• The expansion of Islam
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia
640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa
651, toppled Sassanid dynasty
711, conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind
711-718, conquered northwest Africa, most of Iberia
Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam
Referred to Islamic world as Dar al Islam
• The Shia and Sunnis
– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)
• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran
• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad
– The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs
• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic
• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad
– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder
SPREAD OF ISLAM
UMAYYAD DYNASTY
• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
– New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty
– Established capital city at Damascus in Syria
– Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy
• Policy toward conquered peoples
– Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians
– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam
– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority
• Umayyad decline
–
–
–
–
–
Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century
By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction
The discontent of conquered peoples also increased
Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain
Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain
ABBASID DYNASTY
•
Abu al-Abbas
–
–
–
•
A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims
Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's
Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan
The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
–
–
•
Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy
Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government
Abbasid administration
–
–
–
•
Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft
Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city
Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas
Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.)
–
–
•
Represented the high point of the dynasty
Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture
Abbasid decline
–
–
–
–
–
–
Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war
Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties
Local military commanders took title of Sultan
Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty
A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945
Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family
AN URBAN CIVILIZATION
• Arab Urban History
– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin
•
•
•
•
•
Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis
Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center
Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind
Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes
Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan
– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade
– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans
• Arabic Empire and Urban Growth
– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook
• Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads
• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire
– As empire grew, needed something more permanent
• Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad
• Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis
– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities
• Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith
• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)
• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order
CHANGED ECONOMICS
• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire
• The exchange and spread of food and industrial crops
–
–
–
–
–
Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire
Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat
Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants
Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes
Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna
• Effects of new crops
– Increased varieties and quantities of food
– Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry
– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities
• Agricultural experimentation
– Numerous agricultural manuals
– Agricultural methods and techniques improved
– Improved irrigation
A VAST TRADE ZONE
• Camels and caravans
– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan
– Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities
– Trading goods usually luxury in nature
• Maritime trade based on technological borrowing
– Arab, Persian mariners borrowed
• Compass from the Chinese
• Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners
• Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners
– Organization and dominance of trade
•
•
•
•
•
In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India
Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts
Many cities grew rich from trade
Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments
Different kinds of joint endeavors
• Banks
– Operated on large scale and provided extensive services
– Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks
• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture
ISLAMIC TRADE
OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS
• Al-Andalus
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers
Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty
Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world
Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence
Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture
After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms
A unique blended culture
• Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish
• Very tolerant and integrated society
– Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north
• North Africa
– Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids
– Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements
– Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate
• Central Asia
– Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic
– Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant
– Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network
MUSLIM SPAIN
MUSLIM CENTRAL ASIA
WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS
• Pre-Islamic Arab Women
– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights
– Women often poets, tribe leaders
– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes
• The Quran and women
– Quran enhanced rights, security of women
– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women
– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation
• What produced the change
– Foreign Contacts changed the perspective
• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia
• Isolation from India through purdah, harem
– Muslim rights for women
•
•
•
•
•
Often weaken through Hadith, traditions
Often reduced, ignored
Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest
Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination
Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination
IMAGE OF WOMEN
ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION
•
•
Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines
Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic
–
–
•
Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend
Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance
Promotion of Islamic values
–
–
•
Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents
Education also promoted Islamic values
Sufis
–
–
–
–
–
•
Islamic mystics, effective missionaries
Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing
Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect
Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways
Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs
The hajj
–
–
The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS
• Persian influence on Islam
– After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization
• Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam
• Became early followers of Shia
– Government and regionalism
• Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian
• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian
– Literary achievements
• Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets
• The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style
• Turkish influences
– Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture
– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads
– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state
• Indian Influences
– Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus
– "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"
• Greek Influences
– Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math
– Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis
ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA
•
Conversion to Islam occurred in slow, gradual
way
–
–
–
•
Some converted for improving their lower social
statuses
Often an entire caste or subcaste adopted Islam en
masse
By 1500, about 25 million Indian Muslims (1/4 of
population)
Sufis
–
–
–
•
Most effective missionaries, devotional approach to
Islam
Followers observed old rituals, venerate old spirits
Emphasized piety and devotion
The bhakti movement
–
–
–
No distinction between Hinduism, Islam
Taught universal love, devotion
Guru Kabir (1440-1518)
•
•
Important bhakti teacher
Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were one deity
ARRIVAL OF ISLAM
•
Conversion to Islam was slow and quiet
–
–
–
–
•
Ruling elite converted in cities
Rural residents retained their traditions
Islam was not an exclusive faith in southeast
Asia
Sufis appealed to a large public in these
countries
Melaka was first powerful Islamic state
–
–
–
On Straits of Melacca
Power based on controlling trade in 15th
century
Destroyed by Portuguese
•
ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN
AFRICA
Islam in Africa
– North Africa
• Arab armies conquered region by early 8th Century; pushed up Nile
• Mass conversions of local inhabitants due to tax incentives
– West Africa
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nomadic Berbers in North Africa
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
Introduced by Trans-Saharan Trade route
Merchants were greatest contact with Islam
Local rulers, elites converted by 10th century
Gave elites control of trade, many benefits
Allowed people to observe traditional beliefs
Berbers and Arabs were bitter rivals
Arabs settled coastlands, cities
Berbers lived in deserts, mountains
Berbers became puritanical Muslim, Shia
Berber fanatics invaded Ghana, Morocco
Ghana weakened, fell 10th century CE
Elite religion vs. common practices
– Most people remained polytheists especially outside of cities,
towns
– Produced syncretic blend such as accommodation of African
gender norms
– After conversion by elites, old beliefs remained; part of inherited
traditions
– Religion introduced writing, literary traditions
BANTU POLITICAL
ORGANIZATIONS
• Stateless societies
–
–
–
–
–
–
Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
Societies governed through family and kinship groups
Village council, consisted of male family heads
Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads
A group of villages constituted a district
Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs
• Chiefdoms
–
–
–
–
Population growth strained resources, increased conflict
Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.
Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority
Some chiefs conquered their neighbors
• Kingdom of Kongo
–
–
–
–
–
Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
One of the principalities conquered neighbors, built kingdom of Kongo
Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system
Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century
SLAVERY
• Slavery in Africa
–
–
–
–
–
–
Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
Kept for local use or sold in slave markets
Often used as domestic laborers especially agricultural workers
Generally not a social stigma attached
Slaves could receive freedom, become part of family, tribe
Children born to slaves were not slaves
• Slave trading
– Slave trade increased after the 11th century CE
– Primary markets
•
•
•
•
•
Across Sahara to North Africa and Egypt and ultimately Arabia
Out of East Africa to Arabia and Middle East
In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa
Males preferred, could also act as carriers of trade goods
10 million slaves transported by Islamic trade between 750/1500
– Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
• Original slaves preferred in Muslim world were Caucasian Slavs
• Word “slave” comes from Slav
– Slave raids against smaller states, stateless societies
– Muslims could not be used as slaves (Quran) yet often ignored
THE SWAHILI CITY-STATES
•
Intermarriage of the Bantu and the Arab produced Swahili
–
–
–
•
The Swahili city-states
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
Developed into city-states ruled by kings, 11th-12th centuries
Controlled trade from interior: slaves, gold, ivory, spices
Exchanged goods for finished goods, cloths, dyes, luxuries
Craftsmen, artisans, clerks were Muslims
Slaves used for domestic, agriculture
Zanzibar clove plantations needed slaves
Kilwa
–
–
–
–
–
•
An Arabic term, meaning "coasters"
Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
Swahili is a Bantu language mixed with Arabic
One of the busiest city-states
Multistory stone buildings, mosques, schools
Issued copper coins from the 13th century
By 15th century, exported ton of gold per year
Merchants from India, China, Arabia visited
Islam in East Africa
–
–
–
Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers