Download B - Sewanhaka Central High School District

PART 1. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
I. STEPS
1. PROBLEM - always in the form of a QUESTION
2. GATHER INFORMATION
3. HYPOTHESIS – EDUCATED GUESS
4. EXPERIMENT – test hypothesis
5. OBSERVATIONS - analyze data, charts, graphs…
6. CONCLUSION - is your hypothesis right or wrong?
7. Repeat
II. EXPERIMENT. Example: A student set up the
experiment shown to learn about plant growth. The
student added a different amount of water to 4 identical
containers, each containing 4 seeds in 100 cubic
centimeters of soil. All of the containers were placed in
the same sunny location. The height of the plants were
measured and recorded for 5 weeks.
a. State a hypothesis for this experiment.
• I believe that the plants getting the most
water will grow the most.
b. Independent variable =
• WATER
c. Dependent variable =
• HEIGHT
d. Control Group =
• Seeds that do not receive water
e. Identify 3 factors that must remain
constant.
• Amount of soil, amount of
sunlight, location, # of seeds,
types of seeds…
f. What can be done to make the
experiment more valid?
• Repeat, increase sample size, use
only one variable
PART 2. MEASUREMENT
I. LENGTH – meter
1. What is the length of the tadpole at the right?
•
•
•
•
In centimeters=
3.1 cm
In millimeters =
31 mm
II. MASS –
• the amount of matter in an object
1. What instrument is being used to
measure the mass of the object at
the right?
• TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE
2. What is the mass of the
object?
• 175.0 gm
III. VOLUME –
• The amount of space
an object takes up
1. Calculate the volume of the block below.
Show all work in the work space below.
• V=lxw xh
• V = 2.4 cm x 4.2 cm x 5.3 cm
• V = 53.4 cm3
2. What is the name of
the instrument below?
• GRADUATED
CYLINDER
3. What is the volume of rock below?
• 16 mL – 14 mL
• V = 2.0 mL
IV. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the temperature shown
in the thermometer shown at
the right?
• 25°C
2. Convert the following measurements:
a. 2.45 cm = ?km
k
0.0000245 km
h
Left
d
Base ( meter, liter, gram)
m
b. 5.46 L = ?mL
5460.0 mL
Right
d
c
m
PART 3. MICROSCOPE
I. PARTS & FUNCTIONS:
1. eyepiece/ocular lens –
lens that you look
through
2. body tube – connects
objective & eyepiece
3. stage – holds the slide
4. coarse adjustment
knob – focusing under
low power.
5. mirror/light source –
provides light
6. fine adjustment knob –
focusing for high power
7. base – structure that
supports microscope
8. objective lens – lenses
that magnify
9. diaphragm – controls
amount of light
10. arm – supports body
tube
II. LABEL THE PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
BELOW.
A
H
B
I
C
J
D
E
F
K
G
A. Eyepiece / ocular lens
B. Body tube
C. Objective lens
D. Stage
E. Diaphragm
F. Mirror / light
G. Base
H. Coarse adjustment knob
I. Fine adjustment knob
J. Arm
K. Nosepiece
III. USING THE MICROSCOPE
1. What would happen if you
used the coarse adjustment
under high power?
• The lens and the slide may
break!
2. When you observe a specimen using a
microscope, how does the specimen
appear?
• Upside down and backwards
3. When you move the slide in any direction,
how does the specimen on the slide
appear to move?
• In the opposite direction
4. Which objective lens allows you to observe
LARGER field of view?
• Low power
5. Calculate the total
magnification:
Eyepiece = 15x, Objective = 5x
• Total Mag = 75x
6. What is the student in the picture at the right
preparing?
• Wet mount
7. Why should the student make sure the cover
slip is lowered at an angle?
• To prevent air bubbles from forming
IV. MEASURING WITH THE MICROSCOPE
1. What is the diameter of the field of
view shown below?
• 3.6 mm
• 3600 um
2. What is the length of one of
the cells shown below?
• 1.5/3 =
• 0.5 mm
• 500 um
3. Determine the lengths of the objects
in the microscopes field of view
below?
a. 0.8 mm
800 um
4. How many micrometers
make up one millimeter?
• 1000 um
PART 4. CHEMISTRY
• 1. Label the parts of the atom below,
and complete the chart.
electron
neutron
proton
CHARGE
SUBATOMIC LOCATION
PARTICLE
Electron
Outside nucleus Negative
(electron cloud)
Neutron
Nucleus
No charge
Proton
Nucleus
positive
• 2. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING TERMS:
• a. ELEMENT –
• Simple substance that cannot be broken
down into something more simple
• b. COMPOUND –
• 2 or more elements chemically combined
• c. MIXTURE –
• 2 or more substances physically combined
• 3. Identify each property below as a
physical or chemical property.
• a. Burning:
• chemical
• b. color:
• physical
• c. phase (solid, liquid, gas):
• physical
• 4. Identify each change below as a
physical or chemical change.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a. Ripping paper:
physical
b. burning paper:
chemical
c. melting:
physical
d. baking a cake
chemical
• 5. Fill in the chart below describing
phases of matter:
SPEED
PHASE OF
MATTER
a. SOLID
POSITION OF
PARTICLES
Tightly packed
b. LIQUID
Sliding past each A little faster
other
Very far apart Very fast
c. GAS
vibrating
• 6. For each phase change below, identify how the
material is changing, and whether heat is being
absorbed or released.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a. melting:
S  L, heat absorbed
b. freezing
L  S, heat released
c. evaporation
L  G, heat absorbed
d. condensation
G  L, Heat released
7. Identify 4 properties of metals:
• have luster
• Ductile
• Malleable
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
8. Identify 3 properties of nonmetals:
• brittle
• Dull (not shiny)
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity
9. Identify the parts of the periodic table being described
below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a. Rows:
periods
b. Elements to left of zig zag line:
metals
c. Columns:
Groups/families
e. Group18:
Noble gases
f. On zig zag line:
Semi-metals/metalloids
g: Elements to right of zig zag line:
nonmetals
• 10. Atomic number:
• # of protons
• 11. Mass number:
• # of protons + # of
neutrons
• Atomic mass rounded to
nearest whole number
12. The diagram below represents n element from the
period table.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Atomic #:
14
Atomic Mass =
28.0855
Mass # =
28
# of protons in each atom of this element =
14
# of neutrons
28-14 = 14
• 13. On the pH scale below label which section refers
to acids, bases, and which pH is considered neutral.
base
acids
neutral
PART 5. CELLS
I. CELL THEORY
1. Who developed the cell theory?
•
•
•
•
a. Hooke = cork under named what he
saw “cells”
b. Schleiden = all plants are made of
cells
c. Schwann = all animals are made of
cells
d. Virchow = all cells come from other
cells
2. a. List the parts of the CELL
THEORY below.
• Cells are the basic unit of structure
for all living things.
• Cells are the basic unit of function for
all living things.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
II. CELL ORGANELLES
1. Cell membrane – semipermeable
2. Nucleus – control center
a. Nuclear membrane – surrounds
nucleus
b. Nucleolus – produces ribosomes
c. Chromosomes – genetic material
3. Cytoplasm – jelly-like materials,
holds all organelles
4. Mitchondria – produces energy
(by respiration)
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum –tunnels
in the cytoplasm (transport)
6. Vacuoles – storage
7. Ribosomes – produce proteins
8. Golgi bodies – packages and ships
1. Cell Wall – outer wall made of
cellulose, protects, gives plant cell
shape
2. Chloroplasts – carry out
photosynthesis, contain
chlorophyll (absorbs light)
1. Lysosomes – contain enzymes
that break down/digest materials
2. Centrioles – aid in cell division
V. LABEL THE CELLS ORGANELLES BELOW:
A. Nuclear membrane
B. Centrioles
C. Cell membrane
D. Ribosomes
E. Cytoplasm
F. Lysosome
G. Vacuole
H. Golgi bodies
I. Mitochondria
J. Chromosomes
K. Nucleus
L. Nucleolus
M. ER
A. ER
B. Vacuole
C. Cell wall
D. Cell membrane
E. Chloroplasts
F. Ribosome
G. Chromosomes
H. Nucleus
I. Nuclear membrane
J. Nucleolus
K. Mitochondria
L. Cytoplasm
M. Golgi bodies
VI. TRANSPORT
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT: High low, WITH
CONC GRADIENT, NO ENERGY REQUIRED
b. What happens to a cell if it’s placed in salt
water?
• Water leaves the cell (osmosis)  cell
shrivels up
b. What happens if it is placed in pure water?
• Water enters the cell (osmosis)  swells
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT –
• low to high,
• AGAINST CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
• ENERGY REQUIRED
a. Label each diagram as diffusion, osmosis, or
active transport.
1. Active transport
2. Diffusion
(passive transport)
3. Osmosis
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
VII. RESPIRATION – glucose broken down to produce
ENERGY (ATP), MITOCHONDRIA
TYPES:
1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION – uses oxygen, 36 ATP
2. a. Label the equation below.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide
energy
2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION –
fermentation, does not require
oxygen, produces only 2 ATP
a. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
(yeast)
C6H12O6  alcohol +
CO2
+ 2ATP
b. LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
(muscles)
C6H12O6  lactic acid + CO2
+ 2ATP
VIII. LIVING THINGS
a. UNICELLULAR ORGANISM –
• A living thing made up of only
once cell
b. MULTICELLUAR ORGANISM –
• A living thing made up of 2 or
more cells
c. 5 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN A
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM
CELLS  TISSUES  ORGANS 
ORGAN SYSTEM  ORGANISM
d. HOMEOSTASIS –
• Maintaining a stable, internal
environment
PART 6. CLASSIFICATION
I. CLASSIFICATION – grouping organisms
according to similar characteristics
1. PROKARYOTIC CELL –
• Cell that does not contain a nucleus
• (Bacteria)
2. EUKARYOTIC CELL –
• Cell that has a nucleus
• Make up multicellular organisms
II. 7 LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION:
KINGDOM  PHYLUM  CLASS 
(largest, most diverse)
ORDER  FAMILY  GENUS  SPECIES
(smallest, most
similar)
Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Stools
III. BINOMIAL
NOMENTCALTURE
• Genus species
3. Example: Homo sapiens 
Homo = Genus,
sapiens = species
IV. 6 KINGDOMS
1. Fill in the missing parts of the chart.
KINGDOM
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLES
1.
Eubacteria
-unicellular
2.
unicellular
-prokaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
Bacteria found in
extreme
environments
(thermal vents)
-unicellular
Animal like = ameba,
paramecium
Plant like = algae, euglena
Archaebacteria
3.
PROTISTS
-prokaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
-eukaryotic
-heterotrophic or
autotrophic
Bacteria found
everywhere
KINGDOM
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLES
4. FUNGI
-heterotrophic
-mostly multicellular
Mushroom, yeast, mold,
mildew
5.
PLANT
-multicellular
-autotrophic
Trees, grass,
flowers…
6. ANIMAL
-multicellular
-heterotrophic
Jellyfish, humans, cats,
dogs, fish,
grasshoppers,
bears…
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
PART 7. SKELTAL SYSTEM
I. FUNCTIONS
1. movement
2. protection & support
3. makes blood cells
4. shape
5. stores materials (calcium & phosphorus)
II. PARTS
1. BONES – 206 in body
• bone marrow – produces blood cells
2. CARTILAGE
a. flexible
b. protection & support
c. cushioning (bw vertebrae)
d. make up body parts (nose, ears)
e. end of bones
3. TENDONS – connective tissue which
connects MUSCLES TO BONES
4. LIGAMENTS – connective tissue which
connects BONE TO BONE
5. JOINT – where 2 bones meet
• a. immoveable – skull
• b. pivot – neck (side to side, up & down)
• c. ball and socket – hip, shoulder (circular)
• d. hinge – elbow, knee (back & forth)
• e. gliding – wrist (all directions)
PART 8. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
• LOCOMOTION (movement)
by contracting and relaxing
of the muscles
II. TYPES OF MUSCLES
Fill in the missing parts of the chart below.
MUSCLE
VOLUNTARY/INVOL
1.
voluntary
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
2. Smooth
Muscle
INVOLUNTARY
3.
CARDIAC
MUSCLE
Involuntary
STRIATED/NON
LOCATION
STRIATED
attached to
bones
NONSTRIATED digestive
striated
system,
blood
vessels..
HEART
4. How do skeletal muscles
WORK IN PAIRS>
• One contracts while the other
relaxes.
5. Which muscle is contracting?
• Bicep
Relaxing?
• Tricep
PART 9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – NUTRITION
a. INGESTION – taking in of
food
b. DIGESTION – the breakdown
of food
c. EGESTION – the removal of
undigested wastes
II. NUTRIENTS – substances needed by the human
body
1. CARBOHYDRATES
• sugars & starches
• provide ENERGY
2. PROTEINS
• amino acids
• build & repair
3. LIPIDS
•
Energy, protection, insulation
4. VITAMINS - normal functioning
5. MINERALS - normal functioning
6. WATER - makes up body,
transport, chemical reactions
III. 2 TYPES OF DIGESTION
1. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
• physical breakdown
2. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• breaking down using ENZYMES
IV. PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
b. HELPER ORGANS
1. MOUTH
-LIVER – makes bile,
a. mechanical digestion begins
(teeth)
EMULSIFICATION of fat
b. chemical digestion begins –
-GALL BLADDER – stores bile
enzymes in saliva, (starches 
-PANCREAS – pancreatic juice sugar)
many enzymes
2. EPIGLOTTIS – closes over trachea
to prevent choking
c. ABSORBS NUTRIENTS
3. ESOPHAGUS – pushes food to
-VILLI – folds that absorb
stomach (PERISTALSIS)
nutrients into bloodstream.
4. STOMACH
6. LARGE INTESTINE – water
a. mechanical digestion - churning
absorbed from feces, bacteria
food
which make vitamins
b. chemical digestion of proteins
c. mix of food = chyme
7. RECTUM – stores waste
5. SMALL INTESTINE – most
(feces)
digestion
8. ANUS – where wastes leave
occurs, digestion ends
the body
a. INTESTINAL JUICES many
enzymes
V. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW.
A. Mouth
B. Esophagus
L
A
C. Liver
D. Gall Bladder
B
E. Small Intestine
C
K
F. Rectum
G. Appendix
J
D
H. Large intestine
I. Small intestine
I
J. Pancreas
E
H
K. stomach
G
L. Salivary glands
F
PART 10. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – TRANSPORT
II. PARTS
1. HEART – pumps blood
a. ATRIA – upper chambers
b. VENTRICLES – lower chambers
c. VALVES – prevent backflow of blood
d. SEPTUM – separates left & right sides
2. BLOOD VESSELS
a. ARTERIES – thickest, carry blood AWAY from the
heart
-AORTA – largest artery
-PULSE
-GREATEST BLOOD PRESSURE
b. VEINS – carry blood to the heart
-VALVES
-VENA CAVA – largest
c. CAPILLARIES – thinnest, oxygen & carbon dioxide
are exchanged between blood & cells, connect
arteries & veins
3. BLOOD - connective tissue
a. PLASMA – liquid, carries materials
b. RED BLOOD CELLS – contain
hemoglobin, carry oxygen
c. WHITE BLOOD CELLS – fight
disease
d. PLATELETS – blood clotting
4. Label the right and left sides of the heart, label which sides
pumps oxygenated & deoxygenated blood, and label all parts
of the heart.
LEFT OXYGENATED
RIGHT DEOXYGENATED
A
I
B
H
C
D
G
E
F
A. Aorta
B. Left Atrium
C. Valves
D. Left Ventricle
E. Septum
F. Lower vena cava
G. Right ventricle
H. Right atrium
I. Upper vena cava
A. Red Blood Cell
B. Platelet
C. White blood Cell
D. Plasma
III. BLOOD TYPES – depend on antigens found on
RBC’s
1. A = A antigens, anti–B antibodies
2. B = B antigens, anti–A antibodies
3. AB = A & B antigens, no antibodies (universal
acceptor)
4. O = no antigens, anti–A, anti-B antibodies (universal
donor)
a. Rh factor – extra proteins on RBC’s
Rh + (have proteins), Rh – (don’t have proteins)
PART 11. IMMUNE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – defends the body against disease
Pathogen – disease causing organism
II. PARTS
• 1st Line of Defense: physical barriers (skin, saliva,
tears, gastric juice…)
• 2nd Line: Inflammatory Response
• 3rd Line: Antibodies – produced by WBC’s -attach
to pathogens, slow them down
III. TYPES:
1. ACTIVE IMMUNITY – immune system produces own
antibodies, permanent
•
a. by acquiring the disease (chicken
pox)
•
b. by receiving a vaccination (weak or
dead antigens injected into the
body)
2. PASSIVE IMMUNITY – receive antibodies from
another organism, temporary
• IV. Diseases
• a. Infectious Disease =
• Caused by pathogen, can be
spread
• b. Noninfectious Disease =
• Not caused by pathogen,
cannot be spread
a. ALLERGIES – reaction that occurs when
the body is sensitive to certain
substances
1. Allergen – substance body is sensitive to
2. Body produces HISTAMINES (cause
symptoms)
b. AIDS
• Caused by HIV virus
• Kills T- cells 
destroys immune
system
PART 12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – Gas Exchange
II. PARTS
1. NASAL CAVITY
• a. mucus – moistens
air, traps materials
• b. cilia – filters air
• c. blood vessels – warm
air
2. PHARYNX - throat
3. LARYNX – vocal cords
(voice box)
5. TRACHEA – windpipe
made of rings of cartilage
6. BRONCHI – 2 tubes that
branch off trachea
7. ALVEOLI – air sacs
surrounded by capillaries
where oxygen & carbon
dioxide are exchanged by
diffusion
8. DIAPHRAGM – sheet of
muscle under lungs
III. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW
A
B
F
C
G
D
H
I
E
J
A. Nasal cavity
B. Mouth
C. Larynx
D. Bronchi
E. Diaphragm
F. Pharynx
G. Trachea
H. Bronchi
I. Bronchial tube
J. Alveoli
IV. BREATHING
1. INHALATION (breathing in)
a. diaphragm contracts (down)
b. air pressure decreases
2. EXHALATION (breathing out)
a. diaphragm relaxes (up)
b. air pressure increases
3. Breathing rate increases when amount of
carbon dioxide in the blood increases.
4. Label the BELL JAR below
A. Trachea
A
B
C
D
B. Bronchi
C. Alveoli
D. Diaphragm
PART 13. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION – EXCRETION – removal of cellular
4. URINARY SYSTEM
(metabolic wastes)
• a. KIDNEYS – nephrons
II. PARTS
that filter the blood &
1. LIVER: Produces
maintain water balance 
UREA,
produces URINE (water,
DETOXIFICATION
urea, salt)
2. LUNGS – excrete CO2
• b. URETERS – carry urine
& H20
from kidneys to the bladder
3. SKIN
• c. URINARY BLADDER –
• a. excretes
stores urine
perspiration (water,
• d. URETHRA – carries
urea, salt)
urine out of the body
• b. maintains body
temperature
III. Label the parts of the urinary system.
A
A. Kidney
B. Ureter
B
C. Urinary bladder
C
D
D. Urethra
PART 14. NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REGULATION
a. processes & sends out
messages
b. control & coordination
c. helps to maintain
homeostasis
II. PARTS
1. What is a NEURON?
• NERVE CELL
2. IMPULSE – message sent by neurons
a. STIMULUS – change in the environment that
starts an impulse
3. RECEPTOR – sense organs, pick up stimuli (ears,
eyes, nose, skin, tongue)
4. EFFECTOR – parts of the body that responds to a
stimulus (MUSCLES & GLANDS)
5. PARTS OF A NEURON
a. dendrites – branches at start of neuron that pick
up impulses
b. cell body (cyton) – contains nucleus
c. axon – long single fiber that carries impulse to
end of neuron (surrounded by myelin)
d. terminal branches – branches at end of neuron
6. What is a SYNAPSE?
• SPACE BETWEEN EACH NEURON
7. NEUROTRANSMITTER – substances released into a
synapse that “carries” impulse to next cell
8. Label parts of the neuron below.
F
A. Dendrites
D. Terminal Branches
B. Cell body / Cyton E. Synapse
C. Axon
F. Schwann Cells
III. TYPES OF NEURONS
•
•
•
SENSORY NEURON – receptors  brain & spinal
cord
INTERNEURONS – make up brain & spinal cord
MOTOR NEURONS – brain & spinal cord 
effectors
IV. RELEX ARC (RSIME)
Receptor  Sensory Neuron  Interneuron  Motor
Neuron  Effector
(Interneurons)
V. REFLEX
1. Reflex – involuntary response
controlled by the spinal cord
VI. DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – brain & spinal cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – branching
nerves that carry messages to all body parts
VII. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. BRAIN (3 parts) – protected by cranium
a. Cerebrum – largest
• controls VOLUNTARY activities. the senses,
thinking, memory, language…
b. Cerebellum – back
• controls BALANCE
c. Medulla – brain stem
• controls all INVOLUNTARY activities (heart beat,
breathing, digestion…)
d. Label the parts of the central nervous
system below.
A. Cerebrum
B. Cerebellum
C. Medulla
D. Spinal Cord
2. SPINAL CORD – protected by
vertebrae
PART 15. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REGULATION - produces hormones that
control body functions
2. HORMONE
a. chemical produced by endocrine
glands
b. chemical messengers that travel
through the BLOODSTREAM
a. How are the nervous & endocrine systems
similar?
• Both send messages.
• Both regulate the body/ maintain homeostasis
b. How are they different?
• The endocrine system uses hormones that travel
in the blood to send messages while the nervous
system uses impulses that pass over neurons.
• Nervous system is faster than the endocrine
system.
II. PARTS
1. HYPOTHALAMUS – part
of brain that, controls the
pituitary gland
2. PITUITARY GLAND - in
the brain
• secretes hormones that
control other glands
• secretes Growth hormone
3. THYROID – controls
metabolism
4. PARATHYROIDS –
controls calcium levels
6. ADRENAL GLANDS – on top
of each kidney
• ADRENALINE – released in
times of stress (increases heart
rate, breathing rate…)
7. ISLETS OF LANGERHANSon pancreas
• INSULIN – decreases blood
sugar level
• GLUCAGON – increases blood
sugar level
8. OVARIES – female gonads
• ESTROGEN – secondary sec
characteristics
9. TESTES – male gonads
• TESTOSTERONE - secondary
sex characteristics
III. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
1. How endocrine glands work
2. A hormone causes a gland to produce or stop
producing another hormone
IV. LABEL THE DIAGRAM BELOW
A. Pituitary Gland
B. Thyroid
C. Parathyroid
D. Thymus
E. Adrenal Glands
F. Islets of Langerhans
G. Ovaries
H. Testes
PART 16. REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
I. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. 1 parent
2. offspring identical to parent
3. MITOSIS = 1 cell  2 cells
II. MITOSIS – cell division
1. 1 cell  2 cells that have the SAME
# OF CHROMOSOMES as parent cell
2. asexual reproduction
3. production of ALL body cells
EXCEPT sex cells
4. Growth and repair
III. STEPS OF MITOSIS:
1. INTERPHASE – chromosomes replicate
2. PROPHASE – nuclear membrane disappears
and spindle fibers form
3. METAPHASE – chromosomes line up in
middle of cell
4. ANAPHASE – chromosomes separate and
move away from each other
5. TELOPHASE – nuclear membrane starts to
reform
• cytokinesis – cell membrane pinches in
IV. Label the steps of mitosis below.
A. Interphase
D. Anaphase
B. Prophase
E. Telophase
C. Metaphase
PLANT CELL MITOSIS
1. no centrioles
2. CYTOKINESIS – cell plate forms instead
of cell membrane pinching in
IV. TYPES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
1. FISSION – equal division (bacteria,
ameba and paramecium)
2. BUDDING – unequal division (Yeast)
3. SPORULATION – spores develop into
new organism (mold, mushrooms)
4. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – used
by plants (NO SEEDS)
-runners (strawberries), buds/tubers
(potatoes), grafting (roses), bulbs (onions)
V. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. 2 parents, each give sex cell
2. Offspring NOT identical to parents
3. FERTILIZATION = SPERM +
EGG  ZYGOTE
4. ZYGOTE DEVELOPS INTO EMBRYO
(1st 8 weeks)  FETUS
VI. MEIOSIS – cell division
1. 2 divisions (1  2  4)
2. for sexual reproduction
3. 4 new daughter cells with ½ the number of chromosomes as
parent cell
4. TO PRODUCE SEX CELLS ONLY (in ovaries & testes)
MALES = 4 SPERM
CELLS
FEMALE = 1 EGG + 3
POLAR BODIES
5. What type of organisms carry out
external fertilization?
• Aquatic (fish, frogs…)
6. Why do these organisms release many
sex cells at one time?
• To increase chance of fertilization
7. What type of organisms carry out internal
fertilization?
• Terrestrial (live on land)
• VII. Metamorphosis
• a. Complete = 4 stages (egg
larva  pupa  adult), butterfly
• b. Incomplete = 3 stages = egg 
nymph, adult
PART 17. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
I. FUNCTION
1. REPRODUCTION -the process
through which living things produce
new individuals of the same kind
II. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SPERM CELLS – male sex cells
1. TESTES -produce sperm cells and testosterone
2. SCROTUM -external organ that surrounds testes
3. SPERM DUCTS/VAS DEFERENS -tubes that carry
sperm to the penis
4. GLANDS -adds liquid to sperm (semen)
5. PENIS –deposits sperm into female
6. URETHRA – tube in the penis which transports urine
& semen
7. Label the diagram of the male reproductive
system.
A
A. Urinary bladder
B
B. Vas Deferens
C
C. Glands
D. Gland
D
H
E. Testes
E
F. Urethra
G. Penis
F
G
H. Vas Deferens
III. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
EGGS – female sex cells
1. OVARIES - makes eggs and estrogen
2. FALLOPIAN TUBES - (oviduct) tubes in which an
egg travels through from ovaries to the uterus
• FERTILIZATION OCCURS HERE
3. UTERUS - muscular organ where zygote attaches
and develops into a baby
4. CERVIX - lower end of the uterus
5. VAGINA – birth canal, where sperm is deposited
6. Label the diagram of the female
reproductive system.
A. Oviduct /
Fallopian Tube
A
B. Egg (Ovulation)
C. Ovary
D. Uterus
E. Vagina
F. Cervix
B
C
F
D
E
IV. MENSTRUAL CYCLE (28 days)
1. STEPS
• a. Egg develops in ovary
• b. OVULATION – egg released from ovary
• c. Lining of uterus thickens with blood
• d. NO FERTILIZATION  MENSTRUATION
(uterus lining sheds, egg leaves body)
V. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
1. FERTILIZATION: EGG + SPERM 
ZYGOTE (fertilized egg)
2. ZYGOTE  EMBRYO (8 weeks) 
FETUS (after 8 weeks)
(BY CELL DIVISION)
3. Label the diagrams.
C
A
B
A. Fertilization
B. Zygote
C. mitosis
E
F
4. STRUCTURES FORMED
a. AMNIOTIC SAC – surrounds fetus & contains
amniotic fluid that protects baby
b. PLACENTA – network of blood vessels where
nutrients & wastes are exchanged between the
mother’s blood & baby’s blood by diffusion
c. UMBILICAL CORD – blood vessels that connect the
fetus to the placenta
• Carry nutrients & and wastes to and from the
placenta
d. Label the diagram below.
F
B
E
A. Amniotic Sac
B. Uterus
C. Cervix
D. Umbilical Cord
E. Placenta
F. fetus
C
VI. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS (FLOWERS)
1. PARTS OF A FLOWER
a. PETALS – colored
leaves, attract insects for
pollination
b. SEPALS – green
leaves, protection
c. STAMEN – male
reproductive organ
• ANTHER – produces
pollen (sperm)
• FILAMENT – stem holds
up anther
d. PISTIL – female
reproductive organ
• STIGMA – sticky part
that catches pollen
• STYLE – long tube that
brings pollen to ovary
• OVARY – where eggs
are produced and stored
• OVULES – in ovary,
contain eggs
2. Label the diagram of the flower below.
1. anther
10
2. filament
4. stigma
5. style
11
6. ovary
8. petal
9. sepal
10. stamen
11. pistil
VIII. HOW DO FLOWERS REPRODUCE?
1. POLLINATION - pollen lands on stigma
a. self-pollination – pollen from one flower
lands on stigma of the same flower
(IDENTICAL)
b. cross pollination – pollen from one
flower lands on stigma of other flower
2. FERTILIZATION
1. pollen lands on stigma
2. pollen tube grows down
through the style and
carries pollen to ovary
3. sperm fertilizes egg in ovule
4. ovule  SEED (embryo)
5. ovary  FRUIT
3. SEEDS
• Embryo
• Seed coat (protects embryo)
• Stored food for embryo
4. GERMINATION – growth of plant embryo
inside seed (sprouting)
a. For germination to occur there must be
enough water, enough oxygen & right
temperature
PART 18. GENETICS
I. GREGOR MENDEL – crossed pea plants to study heredity
passing on of traits)
I. CHROMOSOMES –in nucleus
• 1. consist of genes which contain genetic information (DNA)
• 2. sex chromosomes – determine sex of an organism
a. EGGS = X
SPERM = X or Y
b. FEMALE = XX
MALE = XY
1. GENES – 2 genes (ALLELES) for every trait (1 from each
parent)
2. DOMINANT GENE/TRAIT – stronger gene – CAPITAL
LETTER (T)
3. RECESSIVE GENE/TRAIT – weaker gene – lower case (t)
4. PHENOTYPE – physical appearance (what offspring look like)
5. GENOTYPE – genetic makeup
T = tall plant, t = short plant
GENES PHENOTYPE
TT
tt
Tt
GENOTYPE
Tall
Homozygous OR pure
dominant
Short
Homozygous OR pure
recessive
Tall
Heterozygous OR
hybrid
III. PUNNETT SQUARES
1. Cross a pure dominant tall plant with a hybrid
plant.
T
t
T
T
TT
TT
Tt
Tt
Phenotype =
100% tall
Genotype =
50% pure dominant
50% hybrid
2. B = Brown eyes, b = blue eyes
Cross a blue eyed person with a hybrid brown
eyed person. Give the phenotypes & genotypes
of their offspring.
b
b
B
Bb
Bb
b
bb
bb
Phenotype =
50% brown eyes
50% blue eyes
Genotype =
50% pure recessive
50% hybrid
3. G = green, g = yellow
Cross a yellow plant with a pure dominant plant.
Give the phenotypes & genotypes for all
offspring.
G
g
g
Gg
Gg
Phenotype =
100% green
Gg
Genotype =
100% hybrid
G Gg
IV. MULTIPLE ALLELES – MORE THAN 2
GENES AVAILABLE FOR A TRAIT
1. Example: BLOOD TYPES – 3 alleles
a. A & B = both dominant
b. O = recessive
BLOOD TYPE
A
B
AB
O
ALLELES
AA or AO
BB or BO
AB
OO
2. Cross a person with blood type O with
a person who is pure for blood type B.
What blood types will their children
have?
O
O
B
BO
BO
B
BO
BO
All of their
children will
have blood
type B.
V. MUTATION – change in a gene
that may cause a new trait (good
or bad)
• a. in SEX CELLS  can be
passed on to offspring
• b. Examples: sickle cell anemia
VI. PEDIGREE CHARTS - trace a genetic trait in
a family
1. Example:
2. The pedigree chart below traces the
appearance of earlobes through 3
generations of a family.
Based on the chart,
attached earlobes is a
a. dominant trait
b. recessive trait
c. mutated trait
d. trait common in
females
VII. APPLIED GENETICS
1. Selective Breeding: crossing
organisms with desirable traits to
produce offspring with those
traits
A. Hybridization (different)
B. Inbreeding (same/similar)
2. Genetic Engineering:
• Recombinant DNA made  simple
organism carried out function
controlled by complex organisms cut
DNA
• (Example: Insulin producing bacteria)
3. Cloning: producing organism
(CLONE) that is genetically identical to
parent
PART 19. PLANTS
I. PARTS OF PLANTS
1.ROOTS: absorb water & dissolved
minerals, anchor plant, store food
b. root hairs – increase surface area
for water absorption
2. STEM
a. supports plant, hold up leaves
b. contains VASCULAR TISSUE
-XYLEM – carries water up the
plant
-PHLOEM – carries food everywhere
3. LEAVES – where PHOTOSYNTHESIS occurs
a. chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll (green pigment
which absorbs light)
b. Equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
(carbon (water) (glucose) (oxygen)
dioxide)
c. SUNLIGHT = energy source
d. OXYGEN = waste product that is released into the air
(oxygen we breathe)
TROPISM – how a plant responds to a stimulus
• POSITIVE = toward stimulus (Example: light)
NEGATIVE = away from stimulus
PART 20. ECOLOGY
I. ECOSYSTEMS
1. ECOSYSTEM:
• all the living & nonliving things in an
environment
a. BIOTIC FACTORS – living things
b. ABIOTIC FACTORS – nonliving
things
2. COMMUNITY – all of the different
LIVING things in an ecosystem
3. POPULATION – organisms of the same
SPECIES living in a community
4. NICHE
a. the role an organism plays
b. what it needs, what it eats, where
it lives, how it behaves
5. HABITAT – where an
organism lives
II. LIVING THINGS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
1. PRODUCERS
• autotrophs (plants),
• get energy from the SUN
• GREATEST AMOUNT OF ENERGY IN THE
ECOSYSTEM
2. CONSUMERS – heterotrophs
a. HERBIVORES – eat producers (plants)
b. CARNIVORES – eat other animals
c. OMNIVORES – eat both plants and animals
d. SCAVENGERS – eat dead organisms
3. DECOMPOSERS
a. break down dead organisms into
small materials & place them back
into the environment to be used
again
b. BACTERIA, MUSHROOMS
4. PREDATOR – living thing that hunts
and kills other living things as food
5. PREY – organisms killed by
predators
III. FOOD CHAIN - shows how much
ENERGY is transferred
1.
PRODUCER  PRIMARY CONSUMER  SECONDARY CONS
(herbivore or omnivore)
(carnivore or omnivore)
2. Label the parts of the food chain below.
b.
d.
e.
c.
Primary
Secondary Tertiary
producer
carnivore
consumer consumer consumer
(herbivore)
a.
3. Where is the most energy found in this food
chain?
Plants
IV. FOOD WEB – overlapping food chains
1. Identify the following organisms in the food
web.
a. Producers:
Grasses, bean plants
b. Herbivores:
Rabbits, caterpillars
c. Carnivores:
Frogs, trout, snakes,
hawks, foxes
d. decomposers:
bacteria
V. ENERGY PYRAMID
Use the energy pyramid at the right to answer the questions
below.
a. Which level contains the greatest amount of energy?
•
GREEN PLANTS
b. What happens to the amount of energy as it moves up the
pyramid?
•
IT DECREASES
c. Which organism is an herbivore?
•
MICE
VI. SYMBIOSIS
1. Relationship between 2
organisms where one lives on, in,
or near the other
2. 3 types:
a. COMMENSALISM = 1 benefits, other not
harmed/unaffected (+, -)
-mites on eyebrows
b. MUTUALISM = both benefit (+, +)
-bacteria in our intestines
c. PARASITISM = PARASITE benefits,
HOST is harmed (+, -)
-fleas on dogs
VII. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
1. When one community replaces another until a
stable community exists
2. CLIMAX COMMUNITY – stable community,
end of succession
Pioneer
organisms
Climax
community
VIII. CYCLES
1. Water Cycle (evaporation,
condensation, precipitation,
transpiration)
2. Carbon & Oxygen Cycle
(respiration & photosynthesis
3. Nitrogen Cycle (Nitrogen
changed into usable forms)
PART 21. EVOLUTION
I. EVOLUTION – change in a
species over time
II. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1.FOSSILS – remains of living
things
2.a. Law of Superposition –
younger layers of sedimentary
rock lay on top of older ones
b. In the diagram below, which fossil:
•
•
•
•
OLDEST = A
YOUNGEST = C
MOST COMPLEX = C
MOST SIMPLE = A
2. ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE
a. Homologous structures – structures
that evolved from similar body parts
(similar structure BUT different function)
b. Examples: human arm, whale flipper,
dog leg, bat wing
3. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
a. young embryos of different organisms
are similar
4. CHEMICAL EVIDENCE
a. materials that make up
organisms are similar
(proteins, DNA)
***ALL OF THIS EVIDENCE
SUPPORTS THE THEORY
OF EVOLUTION AND
SUGGESTS THAT
PERHAPS ALL
ORGANISMS EVOLVED
FROM COMMON
ANCESTORS.***
III. CHARLES DARWIN
1. CHARLES DARWIN
a. Galapagos Islands
b. NATURAL SELECTION
2. NATURAL SELECTION –
• those organisms best adapted
to their environment will
survive & reproduce
3. ADAPTATION – a change that
helps an organism better adapt
to an environment  survive
4. BASED ON 5 MAIN POINTS
a. OVERPRODUCTION –
organisms produce too many
offspring  competition 
natural selection\
b. COMPETETION – limited
resources  organisms
compete  natural selection
c. VARIATION – differences
between organisms  best
adapted will survive &
reproduce
Example: Polar bears with
thicker fur will survive &
reproduce
d. SURVIVAL OF THE
FITTEST – those best
adapted will survive &
reproduce
e. SPECIATION – over time
favorable adaptations survive &
unfavorable disappear  new
species
IV. GRADUALISM:
• evolution happens slowly over time
V. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM:
• long periods of time with no change
interrupted by short periods of
change
EXTRA REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Identify the steps of scientific method.
2. Describe the 2 types of variables.
3. Why do investigations require a control?
4. Explain the cell theory.
5. Distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
6. Describe the function of the cell nucleus.
7. Identify the main functions of the cell membrane
and the cell wall.
8. Describe what happens during diffusion.
9. Identify the organization levels in multicellular
organisms.
10. Compare and contrast the structure of a plant
cell with that of an animal cell.
11. What are the contributions of the early cell
scientists?
12. Compare and contrast active and passive
transport.
13. Assume that MITOSIS begins with eight
chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. When
telophase ends, how many chromosomes will be
present in each new nucleus?
14. Contrast the chromosome number of body cells
and gametes.
15. Contrast meiosis and mitosis.
16. What happens to the number of chromosomes
per cell during meiosis?
17. Explain how sex is determined.
18. Summarize nondisjunction and the problems it
causes.
19. A person who has type AB blood is sometimes
referred to as a universal recipient. Why?
20. Summarize the relationship between genes and
DNA.
21. Describe the overall structure of the DNA
molecule.
22. Summarize the events of DNA replication.
23. Before undergoing meiosis, a cell has 28
chromosomes .How many are present in each of
the four daughter cellsafter meiosis?
24. What kinds of cells are produced in the process of
meiosis?
25. Small ears in guinea pigs are dominant over large
ears. A homozygous dominant male (EE) is crossed
with a heterozygous (Ee) female. What is the
chance that large-eared offspring will be produced?
26. Which Kingdom includes only prokaryotic
organisms?
27. In what cell structure does aerobic cellular
respiration take place?
28. When oxygen is present, cellular respiration in
your body cells produces a total of ______ ATP.
29. Respiration without oxygen is called ___
respiration.
30. In what cell structure does photosynthesis take
place?
31. Which type of cells in a plant normally have the
most chloroplasts?
32. How is genetic information from parents
transferred to their offspring?
33. If one strand of DNA is AAATTTCCCGGG, what
is the complementary strand?
34. What is a mutation?
35. When mutations occur in sex cells, are they passed on to
offspring? What about mutations that occur in somatic
cells?
36. T=tall, t=short. Cross a parent that is homozygous
dominant with another parent that is heterozygous. Give
the genotype and phenotype of the offspring.
37. What is the difference between dominant and recessive
genes.
38. What part of the cell is the site of protein synthesis?
39. What part of the cell contains the genetic material of the
cell?
40. What part of the cell is site of cellular respiration?
41. What part of the cell packages and sorts
materials?
42. What part of the cell stores materials?
43. What part of the cell contains digestive
enzymes for digestion?
44. A and B alleles are dominant, and O is
recessive. John, who has blood type O, marries
Sue, who has blood type AB. What blood types
will their offspring potentially have?
45. What is the primary function of photosynthesis?
46. If black is dominant (B) and white is recessive
(b), what are the phenotypes and genotypes of a
cross between two heterozygous parents?
47. Why is a person with AIDS unable to combat
infections?
48. a. 11.2cm = ___ mm b. 2.7 mm = _____ km
c. 9.2 cm = ___ mm
49. Water freezes at _____ degrees centigrade
(Celsius).
50. Water boils at _____ degrees centigrade
(Celsius).
51. What is meant by the word phenotype?
52. Describe the process of cytokinesis in plant cells.
53. Identify and explain the three types of symbiosis.
54. What is an ecosystem?
55. What is the difference between a community and a
population?
56. Which land biome contains the greatest variety of
living things?
57. Which land biome consists of trees that lose their
leaves during the fall?
58. Which land biome consists of coniferous trees?
59. The tundra is made up of permafrost? What is
permafrost?
60. What is evolution?
61. What is natural selection?
63. Explain the Law of Superposition.