Download The Art of Argumentation

Ethos, Pathos, Logos
When analyzing someone else’s argument or
constructing your own, always ask yourself these
questions:
Who is the speaker?
Who is the speaker or author’s intended
audience?
3. How do I know who the audience is?
4. How has the audience influenced the speaker or
author’s choice of argumentative strategies?
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Loosely defined, logos refers to the use of logic, reasons, facts,
statistics, data, and numbers.
Logical appeals are aimed at the mind of the audience, their
thinking side.
 Very often, logos seems tangible and touchable.
 When a speaker or writer uses logical appeals, he or she will avoid
inflammatory language, and the writer will carefully connect its
reasons to supporting evidence.
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Ask yourself why the author or speaker is using logos?
Advantages: provides evidence for major decisions
Disadvantages: can demand a high degree of reader attention
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type
of appeal:
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test results
standard research findings
surveys
eyewitness testimony
logical reasons why your audience should believe you (keep in mind
that not all reasons are equally persuasive for all audiences).
evidence that proves or explains your reasons
facts – using information that can be checked by testing, observing
firsthand, or reading reference materials to support an opinion.
statistics – percentages, numbers, and charts to highlight
significant data
expert opinion – statements by people who are recognized as
authorities on the subject.
examples – giving examples that support each reason
use of cause and effect, compare and contrast, and analogy
Arguments from the heart are designed to appeal to the
audience’s emotions and feelings.
Emotions can direct people in powerful ways to think
more carefully about what they do.
 In hearing or reading an argument that is heavy on
emotional appeals, ask yourself these questions:
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 How is the speaker or author appealing to the audience’s
emotions? Why?
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Always try to name the emotions being appealed to
(love, sympathy, anger, fear, hate, patriotism,
compassion) and figure out how the emotion is being
created in the audience.
Emotional appeals are often just examples - ones chosen to awaken
specific feelings in an audience.
 Although frequently abused, the emotional appeal is a legitimate
aspect of argument, for speakers and authors want their audience to
care about the issues they address.
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Most common emotions appealed to include
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Creativity – desire for recognition by self-expression
Achievement – the need to attain money, fame, or fulfillment
Independence -- the drive to be unique, to stand out, to be individual
Conformity – the desire to be included
Endurance – to achieve satisfaction by bearing burdens others could not
Fear – to resist, avoid, or defeat threats to the self or society
Advantages: produces immediate results.
Disadvantages: limited impact, can backfire, limited factual support
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used
in this type of appeal:
 creativity – may use humor, word play, etc. to invoke
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positive emotions
moving stories and anecdotes that prove your opinion
music, color, art
using emotional language or “catchy words” to appeal
to people’ s values or guilty consciences or vivid
description.
slanting (omitting or not using information that may
conflict with or weaken the author’s opinion.)
predicting extreme outcomes of events/dire
predication in order to create a sense of urgency
specific examples
Ethical appeals depend on the credibility or training of the author.
Audiences tend to believe writers who seem honest, wise, and
trustworthy.
 An author or speaker exerts ethical appeal when the language itself
impresses the audience that the speaker is a person of intelligence,
high moral character and good will. Thus a person wholly unknown to
an audience can by words alone win that audience’s trust and
approval.
 Aristotle emphasized the importance of impressing upon the audience
that the speaker is a person of good sense and high moral character.
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Advantages: can be very powerful, if the audience shares standards
Disadvantages: depends on readers who accept similar principles
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are
used in this type of appeal:
 Religion – the desire to follow the rules and behavior
of one’s faith
 Patriotism – the urge to place one’s country before
personal needs
 Standards – the desire to be a good citizen, good
student, good parent, etc.
 Humanitarianism – secular appeal to help others,
save the environment, help the helpless, etc.
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Find one example for ethos, pathos, and
logos in Pericles’ Funeral Oration.
 Quote your example
 Identify what strategy is being used (e.g. statistic,
slanting, expert opinion).
 Explain what effect the strategy creates for the
audience and how effectively the strategy is used.