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S.A. Moosavi, S.M. Heidari, E. Rastad, M. Esfahaninejad, N. Rashidnejad Omran
Fig1- Schematic diagram showing both major
mineral deposit types formed in continental
crust above SCLM, normally Archaean in age
(adapted from Groves et al. 1987), and those
formed in passive continental margins and oceanic spreading ridges in divergent margin tectonic settings. Thickness of crust and SCLM not
to scale (In Groves and Bierlein, 2007).
geology and many geodynamical theories
have been proposed. Since certain special
mineral deposit types belong to particular
geodynamic settings, study of the existing
mineral deposit types of the country would
create a corresponding understanding of
the geodynamic cycles and metallogenic
processes. For this reason, and having regard to the economic importance of the
matter and existence of various types of
mineral deposit and previous studies, the
present article intends to address the geodynamical evolution of Neotethys based on
the existing theories and the role of these
evolutionary hypotheses regarding formation of mineral deposit types in the Sanandaj-Sirjan spread and the Urumieh-Dokhtar
magmatic arc. In this line, understanding of
the tectonic regimes in the Neotethys evolution- having regard to the proposed theories and their comparison with analogous
tectonic settings and mineral deposit types
attributed thereto in the world- will provide
novel methods to discover new mineral deposit in the said zones based on the available data. It is hoped that by defining this
requirement, the road can be paved towards
removal of the related obstacles and we can
witness constant progress and optimal discovery every year in the country.
Fig2- Schematic diagram showing the wide
range of deposit types formed in convergent
margin settings. The deposit types are divided
into those of the constructional, orogenic and
late- to postorogenic stages. Derived from several sources including Groves et al. (1998) and
Leach et al. (2005). Arrows on subducting slabs
represent vector of motion of crust in response
to subvertically sinking oceanic lithosphere (In
Groves and Bierlein, 2007).
tion and splitting Pangea supercontinent,
though it may be partially attributable to the
cycle of the Rodinia supercontinent (0.6-1
Ga). The greatest achievement of the cycles
of the Pangea and Rodinia supercontinents
cycle has been the formation of Tethys
Oceans (Prototethys, Paleotethys and Neotethys) between Gondwana and Laurentia.
Alpine-Himalaya orogenic belt has been
originated from both closing Tethys Ocean
and continental collision, and Iran territory
is located in the middle section of the AlpsHimalaya orogenic belt. Most of mineral
deposit types of Iran are related to evolution of Neotethys ocean (Zagros orogenic;
Discussion:
The geodynamic cycles of the Earth crust Alavi, 1994) in the late Paleozoic to Terin Iran territory mainly pertain to construc- tiary in both Sanandaj-Sirjan and UrumiehGeosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008 133
A Brief Review of Mineral Deposit Types and
Geodynamic Settings Related to Neotethys in
Iran
S.A. Moosavi1, S.M. Heidari1, E. Rastad1, M. Esfahaninejad2, N. Rashidnejad Omran1
1. Department of Geology, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran
2. Geological Survey of Iran
Abstract
Recognition of crustal evolution processes and relevant geodynamic patterns for
broader understanding of formation mineral deposits is a special subject of metallogeny, in recent decade. Proposed theories related to the recognition of evolution
tectonic regimes and understanding geodynamics cycles in evolution of Neotethys
are helpful for understanding evolution of Sanandaj-Sirjan and Urumieh-Dokhtar
zones. Many of special mineral deposit types are found in special geodynamic settings, so that study of mineral deposit types is very useful in understanding of geodynamic cycles and metallogeny processes. In this paper, we have considered geodynamic theories of evolution of Neotethys proposed by scientists and then compared
these patterns with same patterns in the world and relevant mineral deposits types
with Sanandaj-Sirjan and Urumieh-Dokhtar zones. In conclusion, this study could
be a modern application method in exploration of many kinds of mineral deposits
(discovered and undiscovered) in the structural zones based on their geodynamic
histories.
Key words: Crustal evolution, Neotethys, Sanandaj-Sirjan, Iran
Introduction
The different mineral deposits are not randomly distributed in time and space (Meyer, 1988; Barley and Groves, 1992). The
fact that there exists a close relation among
rock-forming and ore-forming processes
demonstrates one should regard metallogeny as dependent on understanding the nature of the evolution of the earth crust (Barley and Groves, 1992; Windley, 1995).
Modern theories attribute formation of
mineral deposits to evolution of the intracontinental and tectonic cycles at global
level (Groves et al., 2005; Kerrich et al.,
2005; Groves and Bierlein, 2007). Therefore, proper understanding of geodynamic
132
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
cycles would be the key to better discovery
of ore-forming environments and its tectonic settings (Groves and Bierlein, 2007).
Today, the main driving force for study of
mineral deposit types is to properly understand the metallogenic provinces and tectonic settings which is a factor likely to
reinforce discovery chances and decrease
costs. Hence, study of mineral deposit types
and their relation with tectonic settings has
been the subject of increasing interest of
the researchers in the past two decades (as
of 1986 by Cocks and Singer).
In respect of the structural spreads and their
evolution in Iran, various studies have been
conducted by researchers in the field of
S.A. Moosavi, S.M. Heidari, E. Rastad, M. Esfahaninejad, N. Rashidnejad Omran
gomiocene, and Miocene, and less younger
ones. Due to its rich mineral potentials and
its containing world class reserves, this arc
has long been of interest to researchers and
discovery authorities.
Contending Theories as to Formation of
Neotethys
Due to existence of ophiolite outcrops in
Zagros Thrust, geologists are unanimous
in existence of an intracontinental drift
between Central Iran Zone and Arabia Zagros. Location and time of break-up, separation rate between two plates, time of
reshuffling and quality of closing are questions not finally settled yet (Aghanabati,
2004). This uncertainty has led to suggestion of different theories as to formation of
the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone and the magmatic
arc of Uroumieh-Dokhtar having regard to
the geodynamic cycle of the Neotethys by
various researchers. In general, the theories proposed on the geodynamic cycle of
the Neotethys can be categorized in two
groups: those believing in subduction and
those based on rifting.
Nabavi (1976) and Stöcklin (1968) regard
the said segregation is a kind of rift and
similar to the Red Sea. Amidi and Emami
(1984) consider the Tertiary magmatic processes of the Urumieh-Dokhtar as a kind of
magmatism occurring after continental collision not dependent on subduction phenomenon. Geologists such as Falcon (1969) and
Alavi (1994) consider the south edge of the
Urumieh-Dokhtar arc as the location of the
suture zone. On the other hand, researchers such as Berberian and King (1981),
Mohajjel et al. (2003), Sheikholeslami et
al., (2003), Stämpfli et al. (2001), Agard et
al., (2005), Ghasemi and Talbot (2006), believe in the single phase subduction of NeoTethys under the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone, and
identify the location as the southwest of
the zone. From the viewpoint of the most
of these researchers, the volcano-plutonic
arc of Urumieh-Dokhtar has been formed
due to continuation of the subduction of
the oceanic crust of Neotethys under the
central Iran zone, while the change of its
composition may be attributed to the devia-
tion of the dip angle of the subducted slab
or even separation of the slab break-off in
Eocene and Miocene under the location of
the Urumieh-Dokhtar arc.
Furthermore, Glennie (2000) believes in
two phase break-up for the Neotethys (Ι
and Π) and considers the opening of the
Neotethys ocean on the two sides of the
Sanandaj-Sirjan zone.
Geodynamic Settings and the Associated Mineral Deposit Types
For metals to concentrate and the mineral
deposits to form in magmatic, magmatichydrothermal, or hydrothermal systems,
processes are needed that are driven by
thermal or tectonic stimuli (Groves and
Bierlein, 2007). These stimuli act in lithosphere to crust scales and cause the interaction of convergence forces in formation
or separation of supercontinets. Therefore,
various geodynamic settings such as intracratonic, convergent and divergent margins
are formed that are in fact a reflection of the
supercontinental cycles (Kenorland 2.2-2.7
Ga, Columbia 1.4-1.7 Ga, Rodinia 1-0.6 Ga,
Pangea 0.37- 0.18 Ga) in the course of history (Rogers and Santosh, 2004). To clarify
the matter, the mineral deposits related to
these locations are summarily cited.
Mineral Deposits Related to Intracratonic Magmatism
Various types of these mineral deposit
types are probably related to the primary
extention from the failed break-up of supercontinents (Groves and Bierlein, 2007).
In summary, these mineral deposits include
PGE, chromites, Vanadium Magnetite
(containing titanium) in layered intrusions,
diamond (mostly archean), iron-oxide CuAu deposits (IOCG) (Hitzman et al., 2005)
and mineral deposits related to alkaline to
A-type granite intrusions, magmatic sulfide
Ni-Cu±PGE deposits (Arndt et al., 2005),
and gold deposits related to shear-extension
zone.
Mineral Deposits in Intracratonic Rift
Settings
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
135
A Brief Review of Mineral Deposit Types and Geodynamic Settings Related to Neotethys in Iran
Fig3-Distribution map of mineral deposit types in Sanandaj-Sirjan zone and Urumieh-Dokhtar
magmatic arc.
Dokhtar regions. Emergence of the alkaline
magmatism in the Paleozoic era in many
parts of Iran indicates the opening and formation of rifts at that period (Aghanabati,
2004). It appears that during the upper Ordovician, there has been a gap between the
two plates of Iran and Turan (Sabzehei,
1974). Zagros ophiolites (KermanshahNeyriz) demonstrate the approximate location of the Neotethys that has been existed
in upper Triassic-Late Cretaceous between
Iran and Zagros-Arabia plates (Aghanabati,
2004).
Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone
It extends in the form of a magmatic-metamorphic belt along the northwest-noutheast
axis with the length of more than 1500 km
in the southwestern section and the volcano-plutonic belt of Urumieh-Dokhtar belt
in the northeastern section, whose extension may also be traced in Turkey and Iraq.
Many researchers believe that the initial
formative environment of the Sanandaj134
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
Sirjan zone has been the intercontinental
rift and aulacogen and aulacogeosyncline
basins (Stocklin, 1968; Nabavi, 1976; Berberian and King, 2002; Sabzehei, 1995)
whose eventual evolution and extension
has resulted in the emergence of the Neotethys ocean. This zone has a rich potential
in terms of minerals and discovery of new
mineral deposit types in the recent years
such as the Au orogenic type has resulted in
definition of new reconnaissance projects.
Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc
This arc extends along and in parallel with
the Sanandaj-Sirjan spread and Zagros in
the form of a long belt. This zone comprises the Tertiary volcano-plutonic arc of
west Iran. The length of this zone is approximately 1500 and its width is 150-250
km starting from west of the Uroumieh lake
and extends in the northwest-southeast axis
to Minab fault north of Bandar Abbas. Most
rock units comprising this belt are attributed
to the volcano-plutonic arc of Eocene, Oli-
S.A. Moosavi, S.M. Heidari, E. Rastad, M. Esfahaninejad, N. Rashidnejad Omran
Fig4- Distribution maps of mineral deposit types in Sanandaj-Sirjan zone and Urumieh-Dokhtar
magmatic arc based on geodynamic settings (divergent, convergent, and collision), include: pre and
rifting stage, spreading stage, subduction stage, and syn and post-collision stage (attention to Fig 1
for legend).
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
137
A Brief Review of Mineral Deposit Types and Geodynamic Settings Related to Neotethys in Iran
Most sediment-hosted deposits in sedimentary basins are developed in intracratonic
rift settings and include various kinds of
lead, zinc, silver, tungsten, and stratiform
to stratibound copper with sediment-hosted
similar to the Zambian copperbelt and Kupferschiefer (Hitzman et al., 2005) as well
as SEDEX deposits similar to Mount Isa,
Mc Arthur River, Century, etc. (Leach et
al., 2005). In addition to the above, formation of Besshi massive sulfide type together
with detrital sediments are considered in
the primary phases of rifting.
backarc setting, or within deformed margins of continents and include Phanerozoic
Sn-W deposits, associated with fractionated S-type granites, Phanerozoic reduced
intrusion-related gold deposits (Thompson et al., 1999) and Tertiary Carlin-Type
sediment-hosted gold deposits (Cline et al.,
2005) and epithermal deposits (Jensen and
Barton, 2000).
Orogenic gold mineral deposits are the last
deposits formed in the course of the convergent tectonic regime. These deposits are
formed from archean to Tertiary (Groves et
al., 1998) and in the last stages of deformation of fore-arcs to backarcs in convergent
margin settings (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
Economic mineral deposits in foreland
basins can be divided into two groups: 1)
placer and paleoplacer gold; 2) sedimenthosted hydrothermal deposits including the
MVT Pb-Zn-Ba deposits (epigenetic), and
unconformity-related U deposits. Although
some MVT deposits are arguably related to
extensional tectonics (Brannon et al., 1996), but
the majority formed in foreland basins related to
convergent margins (Leach et al., 2005).
Mineral Deposits Related to Divergent
Margin
Mineral deposits formed in divergent
margins during supercontinent break-up
(Fig.1) include a variety of sedimenthosted syngenetic and epigenetic deposits
in passive continental margins related to
oceanic spreading ridges (beach sand deposits, manganese deposits, banded Iron
Formation, and MVT). Other types are replaced tectonically and preserved during
subsequent ocean closure. These deposits
include volcanogenic massive sulfide types
Geodynamic Settings of the Mineral
(Franklin et al., 2005) similar to Cyprus,
Oman, and magmatic podiform chromite Deposits on the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone
deposits (±PGE) like those in Iran, Turkey and Urumieh-Dokhtar Arc
The supercontinental cycle of Pangaea
and Oman.
comprises a significant portion of the hisMineral deposits related to convergent tory of formation of the Iranian land crust
margin tectonics
and consequently, formation of a major porMost mineral deposit types are formed in tion of mineral deposits. This cycle started
geodynamic settings on the convergent with destruction of Rodinia as of 0.6 Ga,
margins (Fig.2) because of the extensive finished with Pangea continental drift in
variety of different types of magma, metal 180 Ma (Groves and Bierlein, 2007). Emerresources, thermal fluid compositions and gence of Tethys related to fracture of Panthe required P-T for formation of the depos- gea and its closure, the resulting rejoining
its in such environments. Generally, these of the continents and formation of the new
deposits include arc-related hydrothermal supercontinent around 150 Ma thereafter
and magmatic-hydrothermal mineral de- (Scotes, 2000). In this respect, formation
posits such as (Cu, Cu-Au, Cu-Mo, Au-Cu, and closure of Neotethys has had a fundaMo and Au) porphyry deposits, (Fe, w, Mo, mental role in formation of deposits in the
Cu and Pb-Zn-Ag) skarn, massive sulfide two spreads under study.
(Kuroko), and epithermal high/low sulfi- Study of the formation cycle of the Neotdation Cu-Au-Ag deposits (Seedorff et al., ethys leads us to the geodynamic settings
in the course of time and consequently, the
2005).
Several deposits styles are sited in far formation of likely mineral deposits. This
136
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
S.A. Moosavi, S.M. Heidari, E. Rastad, M. Esfahaninejad, N. Rashidnejad Omran
doost, 1992).
Ba deposits (Dorrin, Kashan), Kuroko
type, Eocene (Nazari, 1994).
Chah Mesi Cu-Co deposit (Kashan), volcanogenic hydrothermal (polymetal), Eocene (Ghorbani, 2002).
taining PGE related to layered complexes,
skarn iron deposits, and such undiscovered
mineral deposits as IOCG types, SEDEX,
Cu sediment-hosted, gold deposits related
to alkaline granite intrusions, Au placer,
etc.
3-2-Mineral Deposits Related to Collision and Post-collision (Upper Cretaceous-Recent)
GholGholeh-Ghabaqlujeh orogenic
Au deposits, Cretaceous (Aliiari, 2006)
and Kervian, upper Cretaceous (Heidari,
2004).
Agh-Darreh Au-Mo- As- Hg deposit, epithermal, related to young magmatism, Neogene (Momenzadeh, 1994).
Barika Au rich Massive sulfide deposit
(Sardasht), upper Cretaceous (Yarmohammadi, 2006).
Zarshuran Au-As-Hg deposit, Carlin type,
related to Oligocene intrusions (Mehrabi et
al., 1999; Asadi et al., 2000).
Nezam-Abad W deposits, hydrothermal
type,
Cretaceous-Paleocene
(Farhadian,1991; Fardin Doust, 2003)
and Bam Sar W deposits, Skarn type,
stratabound, with volcano-sedimentary,
Triassic-Jurassic (Azizpour, 1999).
Position of Divergent margins (Triassic, Cretaceous)
Having regard to the mineral deposits
formed in this time interval in the SanandajSirjan zone one may refer to the undiscovered deposits related to this position such as
sedimentary deposits in passive continental margins (e.g. beach sand deposits and
MVT), sedimentary deposits such as Mn
deposits, Banded Iron Formation (BIF) and
all magmatic deposits including podifrom
magmatic chromites and volcanogenic
massive sulfide deposits. Since preservation of these mineral deposits due to subduction phenomenon is very rare, the few
preserved deposits should be sought in convergent settings. The conspicuous point is
that this phase of formation in the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone may provide an important
metal resource for formation of next phase
deposits (convergent).
Conclusion:
Comparison of mineral deposit types (Figure 3) existing in the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone
and the magmatic arc of Urumieh-Dokhtar
leads us to the conclusion that these zone
have surpassed evolutionary forms of the
rifting phenomenon to collision in certain
periods of time. Therefore, having regarded
to the conspicuous mineral deposit types
they can be categorized as rifting, divergent
and convergent settings.
Intracontinental Rifting Setting (Upper Paleozoic)
Based on the existing mineral deposits at
the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone that are particular
to rifting intracontinental settings, one may
expect in their rock units, such types as
Besshi massive-sulfide, and the gold related to shear-extension zones, chromite con-
Position of Convergent Margins (Jurassic and After)
In view of the existing mineral deposits, the
spreads of magmatic arc, forelands settings,
and increasing and clashing are suggested
for this position.
Magmatic Arc: the major eminent deposits
of this tectonic setting include: porphyry
deposits, epithermal, and massive sulfide
of Kuroko type. Having regard to the trend
of this types of mineral deposits, and existence of the mentioned various types in
the Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc, this
position is suitable for discovery of such
mines.
Forelands Spread: from among the foreland
spread deposits one may refer to Au placer,
and MVT deposits (epigenetic), and uranium deposits related to unconformity. Therefore, attention to this type of undiscovered
mineral deposits and consideration of their
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
139
A Brief Review of Mineral Deposit Types and Geodynamic Settings Related to Neotethys in Iran
cycle commences with rifting and as a result, the intracontinent geodynamic setting
and rifting during the upper Paleozoic. In
continuation of the extension of Neotethys,
divergent settings emerge and with the start
of subduction during upper Jurassic-Cretaceous, closure begins and in Cretaceous
(and Miocene?) the closing of Neotethys is
completed. Most formed mineral deposits
either directly belong to these convergent
settings or after formation at the extension
stage have been preserved in such locations. Collision and Post-collision settings
continue to the present time.
Mineral Deposits Related to Magmatism and Intracontinental Rifting (Upper Paleozoic)
Because of rifting of Sanandaj-Sirjan area
in upper Paleozoic, the formation of mineral deposit types related to layered complexes such as chromite and probably PGE,
IOCG type, SEDEX type, sediment-hosted
base metals, detrital-hosted massive sulfide
types (Besshi type), Fe and Au deposits
related to alkaline granite intrusions, and
also Au deposits related to thermal metamorphism and shear-extension zones (core
complex zone) is expected. But mineral deposits of this age (Fig. 3 &4):
Chromite deposits (and probably PGE)
related to layered complexes and hot spots,
in Esfandaghe and Sikhoran, before Permian (Ghasemi, 2000).
Bavanat Cu massive sulfide deposit (Fars
Province), Besshi type, in mafic metamorphic rocks, Permo-Triassic (Mousivand,
2003) and Chah-Gaz massive sulfide deposit in Shahr-e-Babak, middle Paleozoic
(Mousivand et al., 2007).
Gol Gohar Fe deposit, skarn type, Paleozoic (Halaji and Yaghubpour, 1994).
Honeshk Fe-Mn deposit, volcano-sedimentary
type, Paleozoic (Shahabpour, 2001).
Orogenic Au deposit types related to
shearing area in metamorphic units of
this zone, Zartorosht, Paleozoic (Rastgoo
Moghadam, 2005), Mouteh, middle to upper (?) Paleozoic (Rashidnejad Omran et
al., 2002; Kouhestani, 2004).
138
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
1-Mineral Deposits Related to Divergent
Margin Tectonics (Triassic-Cretaceous)
Khajeh Jamali chromite, Cretaceous
(Sheikhi Karizaki, 1992).
Eghlid Co deposit, stratiform, in deformed
sediments, Triassic-Jurassic.
Hamekasi Fe deposit (Hamedan),
stratabound type (volcano-sedimentary),
Jurassic (Tavakoli et al., 2003).
Khosro-Abad and Galali (Hamedan) Fe
deposits, skarn type with volcano-sedimentary source, late Jurassic (Motavalli,
2004).
Gol Zard Pb-Zn deposit, sedimentary-diagenetic, Jurassic (Farhadinejad, 1998).
Monazite placer deposit (Yazd), in volcanic rocks with incipient metamorphism,
Jurassic (Alipour Asl, 2006).
Ab Band Mn deposit (Fars), volcano-sedimentary type, Jurassic-Cretaceous (Moore,
1989).
Au deposit related to intrusions and placer
(Arak) (Hashemi, 1999).
Sheikh-Ali Cu massive sulfide deposit,
Cretaceous (Monazami, 1998).
Bam Sar W deposits, stratabound, skarn
type, with volcano-sedimentary source,
Triassic-Jurassic (Azizpour, 1999).
2-Mineral Deposits Related to Convergent
Margin Tectonics (Jurassic and After)
3-1-Mineral Deposits Related to Subduction Stages and the Origination of Magmatic arc
Shams-Abad Fe deposit, Cretaceous (Farhadi, 1998) and Ahangaran, Cretaceous
(Momenzadeh, 1976).
Iran Kuh Pb-Zn deposits, MVT type,
Cretaceous (Rastad et al., 1980), Ahangaran, Tiran, Hossein-Abad, Anjireh, etc.
(Momenzadeh, 1976).
Cu-Mo (Au) deposits of Sar Cheshmeh,
Meiduk, Darreh Zar, Darreh Zereshk,
Takht, Sharif-Abad, etc.
Sari Guni (Dashkasan, Kordestan) AuAs-Mo deposits, low sulfidation epithermal
type (Nirumand, 1999, Jeremy Richards et
al., 2006). Bozni Mn deposit (Ardestan),
volcanogenic hydrothermal and Venarch
(Qom) volcano-sedimentary, Eocene (Far-
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A Brief Review of Mineral Deposit Types and Geodynamic Settings Related to Neotethys in Iran
preservation and search are suggested.
Accretion-collision: In summary, most
mineral deposits formed in this tectonic setting are: gold and orogenic base metals, tin
and tungsten deposits, gold deposits related
to reduction intrusions, sediment-hosted
gold deposits (Carlin type), VMS deposits
(Kuroko), and epithermal deposits. However; except for VMS, other mineral deposits
are formed at the time of collision and after
that in this area. Due to suitable preservation of some of these mineral deposit types,
the discovery chances in the SanandajSirjan zone are very high having regard to
the ones discovered so far such as orogenic
gold, and Carlin Type, Agh-Darreh.
This article intended to provide general information on the expected geodynamic settings and their comparison with world-wide
samples, through a passing glance on the
existing discovery data on the mineral deposit types of the two spreads under study so
that in this way a scheme can be presented
to trace, search, and discover new mineral
deposits based on the patterns of undiscovered mines in these regions. It is noteworthy that as the title of the article indicates,
in order to achieve this lofty purpose, there
is need to contribution and cooperation of
various disciplines and scientific centers
throughout the country, hopefully resulting
in increasing understanding of these cycles
and discovery of further mineral resources
in this land.
140
Geosciences Vol. 17. No.1 2008
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