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Tonal desires Convention and transgression in the harmonic procedures of three non-transcriptive works by Jack Body BY MICHAEL NORRIS “Music, as sound, was so mysterious, ephemeral, intangible, its power to move so undefinable. I saw music as a wonderfully manipulative art, a kind of sexual substitute, seduction at a remove.” (Jack Body)1 Introduction T his article traces an “aesthetic of sensuality” in the work of Jack Body. Whilst a number of his works engage directly with narratives of sexuality and gender, the thesis I explore here is that, even in works that do not rely on an explicit extramusical narrative, the very materials of his music—especially the pitch materials—articulate this “seduction at a remove” of the opening quotation. In drawing aesthetic conclusions from technical specificities, I will study three works: the Love Sonnets of Michelangelo for soprano and alto voice, the Five Melodies for piano, and the Five Lullabies for choir.2 These works are somewhat unusual for Body in that they use neither quotation nor “double transcription”3 as key musico-generative procedures. This is because much of Body’s oeuvre is defined by the process of transcription/ quotation–decomposition–recontextualisation, in which 1 Body, 1999. 2 This article is intended to be read in conjunction with Five Melodies for piano, Five Lullabies and Love Sonnets of Michelangelo, published by Waiteata Music Press. Recordings are available on Rattle CD RAT D006 and Waiteata Music Press CD WTA 006 3 Body’s term, introduced in Body, 1998 76 | CANZONA2007 pre-existing musical sources are presented in whole or in fragments, and recontextualised with creative abstractions of, or responses to, elements found within the source. These include works such as After Bach, Carol to St Stephen or Pulse, in which quotations stem from the Western art music canon; works such as Three Transcriptions, Melodies for Orchestra or African Strings, in which the transcriptions derive from recordings of non-Western musical practices; and even works such as Tui, Korimako & Kokako and The Street Where I Live, in which “extra-musical” sources are used (birdsong in the former, and Body’s own speaking voice in the latter). This approach is not without it problems, however, for it impinges upon the modernist ideology of the artist as cultural innovator and technical perfectionist rather than a “mere” bricoleur. This issue still underpins the divide today between modernism’s drive for authorial authenticity and postmodernism’s deep-seated suspicion of such narratives. For the purposes of this article, I will leave to one side discussion of these concerns: these are introduced in the interview with Jack Body elsewhere in this issue. Instead, I will focus on the musical features of the three works to be studied. As they lack pre-existing musical sources, we might expect that analysis would somehow reveal Body’s “individuality” or his “personal” compositional procedures. But we should be wary of reading these works as somehow more “pure”, “autonomous”, or representative of Body’s “own voice”. For even here, it is clear that the impact of his listening, transcription practice and ethnographic research is deeply ingrained in the fabric of his musical self. Elements such as rhythmic material, harmonic structure and timbral preferences seem to be a synthesis of transcriptive influences from throughout his compositional development. In short, the traces of the transcriptive process run deep in this music. Despite this caveat, we can still identify a number of musical features common to the non-transcriptive works, which to some extent represent a more technical point of difference from the transcriptive works. Most importantly, we will see how they share a number of developmental procedures, structural processes and harmonic techniques. While these approaches may be located in a continuum of modal practice originating in early twentieth-century post-tonal scalar organisation, they are coloured with strong inflections from a chromatic development of line and harmony. As such, we can see an allegiance to the post-serial chromatic organisation of composers such as Luciano Berio. Beyond the purely technical concerns, Body maintains and exploits this opposition between conventional modal materials and an expressive (“transgressive”) chromaticism in order to express his conception of a “seductive music”. While I avoid the essentialist position of delimiting Body’s music as an exemplar of a “gay aesthetic”, I do maintain that this deliberate tension between the dual poles of tonal/chromatic, conventional/transgressive, pleasure/pain, and self/other engender the primary affects of desire and eroticism. I also maintain that this is much in the spirit of the late nineteenth-century musical eroticists such as Wagner and Debussy. Tonal or atonal? Post-tonal contexts for Body’s pitch materials Body’s treatment of pitch in these works reflects his absorption of three seemingly contradictory harmonic practices of the twentieth century: firstly, a melodic angularity, expressive intervallic repertoire and desire for chromatic saturation redolent of the atonal and serial works of the Second Viennese School; secondly, an underlying adherence to scalar organisation of pitch, employing exotic scales and modes of the early twentieth-century FrancoRussian school (such as Debussy, Fauré, Stravinsky and Messiaen); thirdly, the opening up of non-Western pitch materials to modern composers through recordings and ethnographic research, particularly those from cultures in South-East Asia, Western China and Eastern Europe. This deliberate synthesis of scalar and chromatic approaches are manifested in the following technical procedures: 1. the formation of a series of tonal/modal scalar pitch collections from an underlying chromatic—and in some cases, serial—organization. 2. use of a static, invariant pitch-class set, around which dynamic, chromatically complementary sets are arrayed 3. the focussing on “tensional dyads” (typically minor seconds) within an otherwise tonal/modal context 4. the articulation of an otherwise conventional scalar pitch collection through emphasis of unusual, “transgressive” intervals (e.g. tritones, augmented thirds, diminished fourths, augmented fifths, major sevenths) 5. the “normalizing” of secundal harmony (minor and major seconds) through their prolongation and usage at cadential points The first of these techniques, in which scalar collections are controlled by an underlying serial ordering, is not a strict local-level serialization of the twelve pc found in true dodecaphonic practice. Instead, it follows on more from the developments to serialist practice that occurred in the middle of the twentieth century, in which tone rows were used in a much more flexible, macrostructural manner. Works such as Sequenza V by Berio are typical of this macrostructural usage—as Whittall notes, “it was perfectly possible for a line to be built up from the gradual assemblage of ‘the notes of a fixed dodecaphonic field’”4 Body uses “moving segments” of a 9–12-note row to map a trajectory through the chromatic aggregate, the segments being small, scalar pitch collection of typically between four and seven pc. Body then uses the last pitch class in the row as an arrival point—either a climax or cadence—the final attainment of saturation acting with a closural function. In the absence of the harmonic teleology of common-practice tonality, this musical agglomeration is the only real telos that these pieces often attain. Body does, however, employ other procedures to articulate a sense of direction. For instance, the expansion and contraction of pc collections forms a structural role: expanding sets tend to progress musical tension, contracting sets recess it. Registral expansion and contraction is also employed in a conventional manner to support the structural profile. These formal strategies are clearly demonstrated in Movement V from the Five Melodies for piano. The opening four-note “rocking” motif is seemingly unambiguous in its definition of a conventional tonal centre—C major—even though this is achieved through repetition and emphasis of a C major tetrachord, rather than through the contextualisation and definition that would normally be achieved through perfect cadence. As the piece evolves, however, a growing chromaticism invades the harmony, allied with a strong wedge-shaped registral expansion that defines the long-term musical trajectory. The important feature of this is that the choice of new pc is shaped by an ordered 4 Whittall, 2008, p. 198 (my emphasis) CANZONA2007 | 77 bb. 1-8 13-15 9-12 16-17 V. 28-end 18-20 21-22 23-27 Registral & collectional expansion Collectional sequence DISS: 21% 14% 11% 39% 12-note series C Harmonic Major (HARM MAJ) 28% 21% 39% 38% 89% 38% 61% 22% 20% 59% 89% twelve-note row, given in Ex. 1.5 The top staff indicates the changing collectional sequence. The overall trajectory is clearly visible as a gradual expansion in boundary interval (from a perfect fifth in the opening chord to three octaves and a sixth in the final chord), in conjunction with a growing collectional density (four notes in the opening chord to seven in the final). Furthermore, the internal disonance of each collection also contributes to the structural trajectory. In the Ex. 1 I have measured internal “dissonance” of a chord through a simple algorithm (“DISS”6). We can see from the resulting values a reasonably linear progression of increasing dissonance, from a value of 21% for the opening tetrachord to 89% for the final septachord. These procedures illustrate the problematic and deliberately ambiguous role of tonality in Body’s works. While at a local level the materials are clearly tonal and imbued with a strong centricity, the particular harmonic procedures adopted in each piece contradict conventional tonal procedures and unfold a deliberately “provocative” succession of tones. As a result, his pieces are situated in a continuum of tonal definition, from a strongly centred modal discourse on one pole, through to a “haze” of decentred chromatic collections on the other. For listeners, this is actually something of a paradox. On the one hand, we hear the chromaticisms in a conventional Romantic affective framework, as subjective “anguishes” against an underlying tonal security. As Susan McClary puts it, in relation to Philip Glass, “this piece would not work if it failed to push our nineteenth-century semiotic buttons”.7 On the other hand, these expressive semiotics can be heard as a reintroduction of subjectivity into what can be an austerely objective chromatic approach. McClary again: “[tonality] was kept simultaneously at bay and in its place of privilege by what Jean-François Lyotard describes as a negative theology: it reigned as the seductive idol against which composers and listeners were expected to practice apostasy.”8 This paradoxical conflict of semiotic codes is nowhere more evident than in the work of Jack Body. 5 It might be objected that the unfolding chromatic gamut is merely a result of chromatic ornamentation or conventional scalar progression. But the phrasal emphasis that Body places on each entry of a new pc, whilst being continually contextualised through repetition of preceding pitch material, asks us to hear this structure in a decidedly linear manner. 6 The algorithm works by taking the interval vector of a given pc set, multiplying each component ic by a “dissonance weighting” determined intuitively by the author, then summed and scaled between the ‘null’ set (0%) and a chromatic hexachord (100%) 7 McClary, 2000, p.142 8 ibid., p. 140, my emphasis 78 | CANZONA2007 63% Ex. 1: Collectional sequence and underlying 12-note series in Movement V from Five Melodies for piano Expanded modal resources: the “Pressing scales” As noted earlier, Body’s local-level pitch collections are almost always scalar in construction. These scales are usually formed from the same expanded resources that were introduced into the Western canon by early twentiethcentury Franco-Russian composers, especially Claude Debussy. In a thorough examination of the scalar resources found in Debussy’s piano music, theorist Dimitri Tymoczko presents a compelling idea: that these scales are formed from a set of “constraints” on the intervallic properties of the scales.9 The particular family of scales that he uncovers are termed “Pressing scales”, named after Australian jazz theorist Jeff Pressing who demonstrated their use in modal jazz improvisation. These scales have certain characteristics in common with the conventional major and minor scales, but introduce new exotic intervallic possibilities to the composer’s palette. Of course, they also hint at non-Western scalar practices, which were famously rising in consciousness during Debussy’s era. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that Body largely adheres to these constraints as well. The notion of “scale constraints” is central to Tymoczko’s theory. The idea runs that when intuitively forming a new scale, a composer will, whether consciously or subconsciously, impose restrictions on the succession of intervals that may construct the scalar sequence. The key constraint in the formation of Pressing scales is known as the “Diatonic Thirds” constraint (DT). This constraint specifies that: “the interval between scale tones that are exactly two scale steps apart must be either three or four semitones (a minor third or a major third)”. By following this constraint, scales will retain the essentially tertian characteristic of the major and minor scales. In other words, the composer will always be able to form triads, whether they be diminished, minor, major or augmented, between scale tones that are two scalar steps apart. This is analogous to the way in which we extract triadic harmonies from the major and minor scales in order to form harmonising chords. Secondly, by following the DT constraint, composers automatically avoid the undesirable chromaticism of having two consecutive semitones in the scale.10 While there are a large number of scales that conform to the DT constraint, if we ignore the “order” and transposition of a collection and instead consider the scale in terms of an unordered, transpositionally-invariant pc col9 Tymoczko, Dimitri. 2004 10 In fact, this is just another constraint known as the “No Consecutive Semitones constraint” (NCS), automatically given when following the DT constraint. lections, then the total number of Pressing scales reduces down to just seven: 1. DIA: the Diatonic collection (and its various re-orderings, the seven church modes) 2. ACOU: the Acoustic collection (or Lydian Dominant), which includes the melodic minor ascending scale amongst its re-orderings 3. OCT: the Octatonic collection (which has only 3 possible transpositions) 4. WT: the Whole-tone collection (which has only 2 possible transpositions) 5. HARM MIN: the Harmonic Minor collection 6. HARM MAJ: the Harmonic Major collection (the same as HARM MIN, but with a major third) 7. HEX: the Hexatonic collection (alternating semitones and minor thirds, with only 4 possible transpositions) List of common Pressing Scales (scales with M3 & m3 between alternate scale degrees) Debussy uses many of these scales on a regular basis, except for OCT (occasionally) and HEX (never). WT was frequently used, so much so that the scale is indelibly linked with him in the history of Western music. Body, on the other hand, avoids WT, tending to gravitate towards the OCT and DIA collections, though often enjoying the more exotic constructions of the ACOU, HARM MAJ and HARM MIN collections. HEX is used infrequently, though the motivic subset (014) is used frequently, often creating a deliberate ambiguity between major and minor modes. Three of the seven Pressing scales (OCT, WT, HEX) are symmetrical, meaning they are “modes of limited transposition” (Messiaen Modes I, II and Truncated Mode III). Body also employs the full Mode III (01345789E) from time to time; but with its consecutive semitones, this is not a Pressing scale. Transgressive intervals, sensuous lines 1) Scales derived from DIATONIC collection [DIA] Phrygian [min+b2] Dorian [min+§6] Aeolian [min] [min+b2, b5] Lydian [MAJ+#4] Mixolydian [MAJ+b7] Locrian Major scale/Ionian [MAJ] 2) Scales derived from ACOUSTIC collection [ACOU] Acoustic scale/ Mixolydian b6/ Lydian Dominant [MAJ+#4, b7] Major-minor [MAJ+b6, b7] Super Locrian/Altered/ Ravel [min+b2+b4] Melodic minor ascending Aeolian b5 [min+b5] Phrygian Major Lydian augmented [min+§6, §7] [min+b2+#6] [MAJ+#4, #5] 3) The three OCTATONIC collections [OCT] OCT (0,1) OCT (1,2) OCT (2,3) 4) The two WHOLE-TONE collections [WT] WT 1 WT 0 5) Scales derived from HARMONIC MAJOR collection (HARM MIN) Harmonic major [MAJ+b6] Dorian b5 [min+b5, §6] Melodic minor ascending #4 [min+#4, §6, §7] 6) Scales derived from HARMONIC MINOR collection (HARM MAJ) Harmonic minor scale [min+§7] Locrian §6 [min+b2, b5, §6] Major #5 [MAJ+#5] Dorian #4 [min+#4, §6] Phrygian dominant [MAJ+b2+b6+b7] Lydian #2 [MAJ+#2+#4] 7) The four HEXATONIC collections [HEX] HEX [1.2] HEX [0,1] HEX [2,3] HEX [0,3] Ex. 3 The seven Pressing scale collections and their derivatives In his reading of Body’s musicodramatic work Alley, Dugal McKinnon outlines a “logic of alterity” articulated through the decentering of the self/other binary.11 This musical substratum provides a context in which Body adumbrates a latent (closeted) homoeroticism of the Alley narrative. While the works examined in the current article do not propose such a clear homoerotic narrative—with the exception of the Love Sonnets of Michelangelo—the affect of languorous sensuality still permeates the music. We can most readily observe this in the melodic materials that engender an erotic tension between the binarisms of self/ other, tonal/chromatic, teleological/free, conventional/ transgressive, pleasure/pain. The use of a deliberately foregrounded chromaticism within an essentially tonal discourse has a long history of portraying highly charged mental states. Susan McClary analyses this aspect of the “Habañera” from Bizet’s Carmen as an exemplar of the use of chromatic inflection to portray Carmen as a “virtuoso of the seductive arts”: Carmen’s music is further marked by its chromatic excess. Her melodic lines tease and taunt… What is set up as the normative rhythmic motion from d to cs is halted on cn… She rubs our noses in this rather funky chromatic inflection to make sure we get it… While there is never any question of her tonal or melodic orientation in this phrase, her erratic means of descending through the tetrachord… reveals her as a “master” of seductive rhetoric. She knows how to hook and manipulate desire. In her musical discourse she is slippery, unpredictable, maddening…12 The concept of desire expressed through a deliberately provocative chromatic tension reached its apotheosis in the quintessentially Romantic affect of Sehnsucht. Born of the intensification of a pleasure/pain metaphor, the trope of “yearning” is exemplified by the musical technique of the extended appoggiatura, in which dissonance (pain) is prolonged and intensified against a fundamentally triadic, consonant background harmony (pleasure). 11 McKinnon, 2005 12 McClary, 1991, pp.57–58 CANZONA2007 | 79 Wagner’s famous Prelude to Tristan und Isolde (1859) is almost exclusively constructed from melodic appoggiaturas, often in multiple parts simultaneously. Moreover, these are temporally extended through an unprecedentedly languorous tempo, to the point where the deferral of resolution asks us to perceive the vertical simultaneities that result from the chromatic voice-leadings as harmonic objects in their own right (such as the infamous “Tristan” chord). These harmonic ambiguities are further developed in the musical eroticism of Debussy’s Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune (1894), in which transgressive “vagrant chords” (notably the tonally indefinite “half-diminished” chord) are normalised through complete avoidance of resolution of their internal instabilities. A deliberately provocative tension between the sinuous chromatic scale segments that form the opening of the flute’s famous solo and the richness and consonance of the underlying triadic harmonies provides a further example of the Faun’s sexually charged torpor. Debussy also employs a technique that brings a suggestive twist to otherwise conventional cadential formulae: as a fairly orthodox cadence reaches the penultimate dominant chord, the key centre—in what can only be described as a form of harmonic foreplay—suddenly slides by semitone, teasingly avoiding the consummative telos of the V-I cadence.13 In the music of Body, we can see similar erotic tensions at work. Unlike the music of the more radical post-war composers, Body still fashions the musical surface from conventional materials—the scale, the triad, the melodic line. But these materials are separated from the functional aspects of their common-practice ancestry in a way that creates ambiguity between the received “self ” of commonpractice tonality and the “other” of highly chromatic practices such as atonality and serialism. Another “other” is, of course, that of non-Western modal systems. Body’s admiration of Bulgarian music traditions, for instance, finds its expression in his musical language through the deployment of secundal harmony at cadential points: the major and minor seconds become emancipated from their role as dissonant intervals, being instead contextualised in a phraseology that allows a more pleasurable uncertainty of function to predominate. Body’s abundant use of secundal harmony surely stems from a predilection for harmonic combinations that deliberately ambiguate the roles of consonance and dissonance. The establishment of a decentred and deliberately ambiguous tonal system strikes at the heart of Body’s “aesthetic of sensuality”. As McClary argues in “Constructions of Subjectivity in Schubert’s Music”, what is so striking about that composer’s harmonic language is that “it invites us to forgo the security of a centred, stable tonality and, instead, to experience—and even enjoy—a flexible sense of self”.14 Of course McClary’s essentialising of Schubert’s free conception of tonality as necessarily homosexual has been roundly criticised—Richard Taruskin, in a recent article in 13 In fact, both the Wagner and Debussy examples are cited as “reasonably clear instances of ‘fabrications of sexuality’ in music” by McClary (McClary, 1991, p. 8) 14 McClary, 1994, p. 215 80 | CANZONA2007 Music & Letters, takes her to task that, “in contrast to her treatment of feminist issues, McClary’s arguments with respect to musical composition and homosexuality are so blatantly essentialist as to amount to gay stereotyping”.15 Thus, as I mentioned in the introduction, I do not wish to read into Body’s harmonic practices a “gay aesthetic”; I do, however, want to draw attention to the development of a musical language in which the frisson of consonance and dissonance is deliberately dwelt upon, while the sinuous melodic contours act as a visual and spatial metaphor to the curves and entanglements of physical love. Love Sonnets of Michelangelo “I think of the poetry of Michelangelo and the insight it gives us into the mind of this melancholy man, who, by all accounts, was not physically attractive, but who was obsessed by male physical beauty, a beauty be was unable to possess, but which he had the power to recreate”16 As a paradigm of sublimated Romantic desire in Body’s work, it is hard to go past the Love Sonnets of Michelangelo (1988). Written for two female voices, soprano and mezzo, the works explore different affects of eros, from driving physicality to longing melancholy to unaffected meditation. Sonnet I begins with an oscillating minor third An– Cn, occasionally inflected with a Df (the major/minor ambiguity of pc set (014) is typical of much of Body’s “subtle provocation” in his melodic writing). The dottedquaver melismata simulate a series of small sighs (or petites morts?), occasionally striving upward in tessitura to an ecstatic expansion of both register and time, as the rhythm stretches out to a crotchet triplet. On the word “cielo” (heaven), the phrase lifts up to a triumphant high Aff—a ceiling which the music does not exceed. The pitch material is a simple OCT collection, a mode of limited transposition that through internal symmetry lacks a clear tonal centricity. This tonal instability, allied with the dotted rhythms and grace-note ornamentation, create a breathless sense of mental and physical agitation. The considerably mellower coda (the cigar?) is articulated through metrically indefinite triplet figurations: the dotted urgency has faded, and even the wide leaps of the melodic lines are drawn from a static harmonic field, a floating HEX collection with three chromatic ornamenting notes that attenuates the forward motion of the OCT collection (see Ex.2). The final phrase of the piece sees Body clearly relishing the “transgressive” diminished fourth (Gn–Ds) and the boundary interval of a diminished octave (Gs–Gn); the augmented triad articulates the sentiment of the final rhetorical question of the text: E sol l’isdegno il può rompere e sciorre?17 15 Taruskin, 2009, p. 462 16 Body, 1999 17 “then shall anger alone break and dissolve it?” Love Sonnets I. OCT 0,1 HEX Ornamenting pc in the climaxes of Michael Jackson’s Earth Song and Goldfrapp’s Utopia (undoubtedly inspired by the Bond scores Ex. 4II.Pitch collections from Movement I of Love Sonnets of of John Barry). Perhaps more telling is its appearance Messiaen’s mode 3 subset Michelangelo in that paradigm of Romantic affect, Wagner’s “Tristan” Prelude: like the Love Sonnet, it too opens with a swoop ing A–F dyad, albeit a minor sixth rather than Body’s maOCT tetrachords jor sixth. Furthermore, both are immediately followed by a chromatically conceived “sighing” gesture, followed by silence.I. gesture opening I of Love Sonnets of Ex. 5 The from Movement OCT expressive 0,1 HEX the Love Sonnet’s Ornamenting pc Further intervals shaping Michelangelo the s–D phrase are the falling augmented fourth G n,and III. essentially an échaprising major third Cs–Es, which is F# melodic minor (with OCT tetrachord ornamentation) Sonnet II opens with an upwardly major ninth pée from the augmented second found between the Dn and directed ostentatious interval 4toD 5, an transsected almost background transgressive intervals of major sevfrom C Es. TheII. Messiaen’s mode 3 subset 4 4 symmetrically by G and Af . The required move from enth, augmented fourth and augmented second form the IV. fragment, melodic chest to head voice initiates a trope of gender ambiguity framework of this imbuing the line with Ab Aeolian A Phrygian that recurs through the collection. The finalSonnet is most a certain sinuous “curvaceousness”. It is given a further in which “male” chest unusualOCT tetrachords regard, mezzo’s this striking phrasal twist by the breathlessness of the quin in the the sustained Fs. This slippery line voice is heard simultaneously with the soprano’s “female” tuplet which follows teases us. It is based in a conventional scale, but that scale headBvoice, admixture of gendered Aeolian creating a hybrid G# Aeolian A Aeolian roles. f, G, unfolds in unorthodox fashion, The hexachordunderlying the openingsolo angular leap, not [C, D, E through intervals step. collection—or, from a C HARM Its internal chromaticisms derives Af, B] and“taboo” are MIN with an added En, from Messiaen’s Mode III. This collection laid bare. V. returns in various guises throughout both the Sonnets (see III. OCT pentachords F# melodic minor (with OCT tetrachord ornamentation) I. two lines of Sonnet the opening VI) as well as other works V from the Five OCT 0,1 HEX Ornamenting pc n by Body Melodies, with an E (Movement Ef). The remaining material the substituted derives for the aseries primarily of OCT tetrachords, first four of from Loveof Sonnets IV.collections from Movement III of Love Sonnets Ex. 7 Pitch which are planed by a WT tetrachord. Love Sonnets Love Sonnets II. VI. Messiaen’s mode 3 subset Messiaen's mode 3 OCT tetrachords (as harmonic field) VII. Diatonic trichords (white notes) Ex. 6 PitchIII. collections from Movement II of Love Sonnets of Diatonic trichords (black notes) Michelangelo F# melodic minor (with OCT tetrachord ornamentation) Lydian Db pentatonic C major/FIII, In Sonnet pitch collection comprises theunderlying collection on a simple HARM MIN Fs. But Body imbues IV. Ab Aeolian Michelangelo I. A Phrygian HEX pc Ornamenting OCT 0,1 II. B Aeolian Messiaen’s mode 3 subset G# Aeolian A Aeolian of Movement Sonnets of Ex. 8 The opening III of Love gesture Michelangelo OCT tetrachords alters the dramatically Sonnet IV affect emotional pentachords OCT unison of perturbation. Through a rhythmic at an almost pulse, voices to move inan seem unchanging organum the fashion, sympathetic like to the reli the meditative quality gious allusions of the text: e s’ i’ v’amo con fede, trascendo 18 a in meander and out Dio, e III. fo dolce la morte . The two lines F# melodic minor (with OCT tetrachord ornamentation) of unison, primarily featuring the intervals of major sec ninth. ond, perfect fifth and major The lack perfect VI. fourth, component Messiaen's of semitonal mode 3 creates an air of relaxed openness and emotional austerity. IV. V. the curvaceous melodic contour with highly expressive Ab Aeolian A Phrygian intervals. The phrase opens with a thrusting upward major to a Gs to fillinthe sixth An–Fs, which out expands bound ary interval of a major seventh. This rising sixth, both ma APhrygian jor and minor, is a trope of central importance to the late Ab Aeolian Aeolianin the expression G# of Aeolian RomanticBperiod a soaring emotionalA Aeolian field) (as harmonic affect. The minor version, for instance, forms the opening Forza in the overture toVerdi’s La melody notes of the flute del Destino (quoted by Jean-Claude Petit as the theme to B Aeolian G# Aeolian A Aeolian Claude Berri’s film adaption of Jean de Florette), while the VII. V. Diatonic OCT pentachords major version underscores the orgasmic “Vincero!” at the trichords (white notes) climax adopted in Movement collections of Puccini’s Dorma”. “Nessun Ithas been composers IV ofLoveSonnets of film Ex. 9 Pitch by numerous and “filmic” pop musicians, V. Michelangelo Diatonic trichords (black notes) OCT pentachords featuring prominently in the climactic scenes of, to name Twice, but a few, YouOnly The Abyss, King and make Live 18 death sweet and IrisetoGod by “Thus, lovingloyally, Kong VI. Messiaen's mode 3 thee” C major/F Lydian Db pentatonic CANZONA2007 | 81 VI. III. F# melodic minor (with OCT tetrachord ornamentation) IV. A Phrygian Ab Aeolian VI. Messiaen's mode 3 (as harmonic field) deliberate ambiguity The tonal instability and rhythmic agitation return in Sonasks us to savour of a decentred the tonal/chromat net V. Through a series of OCT pentachords, a moto perharmonic language, in which white/black, Love Sonnets B Aeolian G# Aeolian A Aeolian petuo rhythm I.builds gradually to climax on an oscillating ic, self/other VII. are constantly, yet elegantly counterposed. 0,1 HEX Ornamenting pc semitone B–C,OCT over which the soprano declaims a widely Diatonic trichords (white notes) featuring melody the spaced transgressive intervals of a fifth. major seventh, diminished fourth and augmented V. II. OCT pentachords Diatonic trichords (black notes) Messiaen’s mode 3 subset C major/F Lydian OCT tetrachords Ex. 10 Pitch collections from Movement V of Love Sonnets of VI. Michelangelo Messiaen's mode 3 Db pentatonic Ex. 12 Pitch collections from Movement VII of Love Sonnets of Michelangelo ofthe cycle, as Body Five Melodies tetrachord VIseems (with OCT Sonnet like minor completion III. the F#melodic ornamentation) recycles the Mode III pitch field from Sonnet II.Marked (as harmonic field) “with increasing emotional intensity”, the tessitura creeps The Five Melodies for piano (1982) represent both Body’s s , the melodic gradually upwards until, reaching a high G concern with melody as the primary musical force and IV. “sobbing”. line breaks down into a Sprechstimme his interest in alternative modes of presenting melodic Ab Aeolian A Phrygian The phrasal hocketing produces an effect of unusual information. “Hidden” melodies abound: the opening and VII. simultaneously in closing movements present melodic ideas that, through emphasis on key words, being sustained Diatonic trichords (white notes) one voice while the attack is “half-shouted” in the other; various forms of accentuation, “emerge” from otherwise apulsating and continuous rhythmic ostinati. occurs onB Aeolian this every beat.G#Such second Aeolian A Aeolian aggressive attack-series well illustrates the author’s “inMelody I presents an unmetred continuous semiquaver Diatonic trichords (black notes) saziabil foco” (insatiable fire): the repetitive, aggressive ostinato of three notes in the right hand of the piano. Mean vividlypaints the sense insistence of frustration. While while, the left hand damps certain strings in the interior of the entire Sonnet is written in Messiaen’s the piano, creating a rhythmically complex “remainder” C major/FV.Lydian Db pentatonic Mode III, once OCT pentachords again the boundary intervals of the widely-ranging methe undamped notes. “transgressive” such from intervals, to form lodic figures Body develops the harmonic scheme in a fairly typical tend sev- manner: a simple C major trichord is expanded out into as diminished fifth, diminished eleventh, diminished enth, augmented eleventh,major seventh and augmented a C Lydian tetrachord through addition of Fs (the raised melodic lines fourth being a scale degree much used by Body elsewhere). fifth. Many ofthe have components, triadic A further expansion of the set through addition of Bn is but always fogged by the addition of chromatic elements. articulated through an oscillation between the competing VI. tonal centres of C Lydian and B Phrygian. The subsequent Messiaen's mode 3 compression of the collection down to a single dyad E–Fs heralds a dramatic harmonic shift to Bf Lydian, which re(as harmonic field) mains in effect until the modification of the En to an Ef, and the Bf to a Bn, resulting in an OCT tetrachord. The instability of OCT, as opposed to the previous DIA collecEx. 11 Pitch collections from Movement VI of Love Sonnets of tions, creates a sense of tonal fluctuation that is only reVII. Michelangelo Diatonic trichords (white notes) solved in the final beats through the reinstating of the En, and the return to a C major tetrachord. Throughout these of closure Because of the appearance in Sonnet VI, Sontonal shifts, the dyad C–D remains an invariant feature. As Diatonic trichords (black notes) net VII has the structural quality of a coda. After the fire previously mentioned, the use of an invariant dyad (often a with languorous “Quietly”, of SonnetVI,itis marked major second) or trichord encompassed by chromatically crotchet triplets featuring material. The fluctuating harmonies is typical of many of Body’s harC major/F Lydian in the rhythmic Db pentatonic lines deliberately confound the different female vocal monic schemes. Five Melodies for piano registrations:starting two octaves apart—soprano in high I. C Lydian/B Phrygian pentachord Bb Lydian pentachord OCT 0,2 tetrachord head voice, alto in low chest voice—the two voices gradu ally wind back together to a unison Gn. Harmonically, the Collectional sequence Exp. Cont. Cont. Exp. music outlines diatonic trichords, alternating between B Phrygian OCT C Lydian C Lydian Bb Lydian the complementary sets of the white notes (F Lydian) and black notes (Df pentatonic). The constant sliding of the II. "Inner melody" Ex. 13 Pitch collections from Movement I of Five Melodies for F# Minor trichord melodic line between complementary pitch sets creates a piano discourse of strong, yet constantly fluctuating tonal cenMessiaen’s Mode 3 pentachord tricity. The suspended quality of the rhythmic material Hemitonic pentatonic pentachord Pentatonic trichord 82 | CANZONA2007 Ornamental series III. E Phrygian Dominant (HARM MIN collection) Ornamental series III. E Phrygian Dominant (HARM MIN collection) IV. Invariant dyad 10-note accompanying series (complement of dyad) Eb Dorian #4 (HARM MIN collection) Melody II focuses on Body’s interest in ornamentation: complex ornamental techniques are redolent of “folk” voAccompanying harmonic fields cal styles in contradistinction to the gradual loss of orna mentation in Western art music after the floridity of the Baroque. Body’s concept of ornamentation, however, conforms 28-end 13-15 9-12 16-17 bb. 1-8 18-20 21-22 23-27 to the “chromatic ambiguation” role that we have noted in V. Ex. 16 Pitch collections from Movement IV of Five Melodies for many of his other schemes. He achieves this through the Registral & collectional expansion pianoCollectional sequence use of a fairly conventional modal basis for the primary melodic notes, whilst couching the ornamentation within Five collection Melodies for piano an “ostinato melody”, an ostinato”). The hara highly chromatic and complementary pitch 11% 39% within 28% 21% 39% 38% 63% 89% 38% 61% 22% DISS: 21% as14% I. C Lydian/B Phrygian pentachord series). Ex. Bb Lydian pentachord monic OCT 0,2 tetrachord 12-note series development is one of the most “planned”, in that (which, in fact, forms an eleven-note 14 below C Harmonic Major (HARM MAJ) the structuralprogression follows the gradual unfolding demonstrates effect of the ornamentation, the “layering” of (see Ex. 1). The registral which is further differentiated through its piano dynamic. acomplete 12-note tone-row Collectional sequence of pitch-class expands as well, thus developing The overall trajectory is simple in design: the grace-note Exp. Cont.disposition Exp. Cont. Phrygian OCT C Lydian C Lydian Bb Lydian from the clearly scalar conception in the opening page, to a flurries gradually expand in size, Btaking over in promi melody in chromatic widely-spaced closing increasing harmonic field the notes, lines, reminsnence from the and in cent of Movement IV. density as it does so. The increasing textural density is furII. "Inner melody" Although the melodies in Five Melodies do not display ther allied withF#an increase Minor trichord in dynamic and tessitura. The the neverthehighest tessitura is reserved, however, for a recessional vocal ofthe Love sinuous contours Sonnets, less the harmonic procedures employed continue to expassage, in which the material is gradually stripped back Messiaen’s Mode 3 pentachord ploit the tensions implicit in the deliberate oppositions to a single dyad (an augmented fifth). of tonal/modal and chromatic/serial, static/cyclic and dyThe “hidden melody” in Melody III emerges from the Pentatonic trichord and figure, Hemitonic pentatonic pentachord ground self and other. namic/teleological, use of piano harmonics, performed inthe interior of the piano. Body chooses a typically ambiguous scale for the seriesof E Phrygian Dominant (a masounding result,Ornamental the mode degree), Five Lullabies jor scale with second, and seventh a flattened sixth deriving from the HARM MIN Pressing Scale. III. The Five Lullabies for SATB (1989) develop Body’s typical E Phrygian Dominant (HARM MIN collection) harmonic procedures through a series of contrasted vo cal textures, using nonsense syllables. Due to the need to Ex. 15 Pitch collection from Movement III of Five keep performability within the grasp of a non-professional 10-note accompanying series Melodies (complementfor of dyad) IV. Eb Dorian #4 (HARM MIN collection) piano choir, Body does not employ the more complex harmonic Invariant dyad procedures of the Five Melodies. Instead, the Lullabies Melody IV extends the concept of “chromatic encompassare generally fairly static in their modal constructions, alAccompanying harmonic fields into a thoroughly ment of an invariant worked out though Body exploits the frisson of elongated dissonances, dyad” throughout is intoned D–E structure. The dyad using the secundal harmonies and transgressive intervals. Surround of “oscillation–resonance”. gestural paradigm Lullaby I is, in essence, a simple network of modea (Bf Bf Acoustic, C Dorian f2, C Mixolydian, Ef Lydian I. static “ground” ing this is the dynamic “figure” ofa series Lydian, 28-end OCT 0,2 tetrachord 13-15 9-12 16-17 bb. 1-8 18-20 C Lydian/B Phrygian pentachord Bb Lydian pentachord 21-22 Augmented, Af Lydian Augmented). but Body uses each of of widely-spaced harmonic fields constructed from sub- 23-27 V. techniques to develop harmonic tensets complement of the invariant dyad, a of the chromatic expansion aforementioned the from Collectional isheard & collectional is fashioned that Registral ofthe series lines line sion. Themelodic 10-note in full in the final sequence a swooping major seventh in the sopranos sequence followed by pieceCollectional (see Ex. 16) a descending major Exp. Cont. this, the altos and tenors sustain Cont. a Exp. second. Underneath Melody V begins with a C major tetrachord (scale de14% 11% 39% 28% 21% 39% 38% 63% 89% 38% 61% B Phrygian OCT C Lydian C Lydian DISS: 21% Bb22% Lydian20% 59% major second (this is to become a 89% harmonic identity in grees 1, 2, 3, 5),12-note using rhythmic accentuation patterns to series certain this (HARM CHarmonic tones within work). phrase a“hidden repeats, but “highlight” (not Major This MAJ) so constant much undergoing Five Melodies for piano "Inner melody" II. F# Minor trichord Messiaen’s Mode 3 pentachord Hemitonic pentatonic pentachord Pentatonic trichord Ornamental series III. collections from Movement II of Five Melodies for piano Ex. 14 Pitch E Phrygian Dominant (HARM MIN collection) 10-note accompanying series (complement of dyad) CANZONA2007 | 83 alteration: in b. 3, the altos “step over” the tenors to end on an Fn, grating against the tenors’ En and the sopranos’ Gn. A typical expansion of boundary interval begins, and a moment of heightened tension is reached in b. 8 when a nonmodal pc (Af) is introduced in the altos, placed above a Gn in the sopranos. A similar “tensional Five lullabiesdyad” I is reach in b. 12, where tenors and basses sustain a Cn–Df clash. Bb Lydian [F DIA] bb. 1-8(1),8(6),11, 13-14,21-22 Eb Lydian Augmented [F ACOU] bb. 17-20 C (Mixolydian?) [F DIA] bb. 15-16 Ab Lydian Augmented [Bb ACOU] bb. 23-24 C Dorian b2 [Eb ACOU] b. 12 Bb Acoustic bb. 8(2)-8(5); 9-10 Underlying tone row [bar no.s indicate first appearance of pc] b.3 b.4 b.8 b.11 b.12 b.17 b.1 Invariant trichord Ex. 17 Pitch collections from Movement I of Five Lullabies Lullaby II, a more metrically-defined movement, features the men in rhythmic unison, oscillating between an “open” interval (third or fourth) and a second (major or minor). The underlying mode is A Aeolian, but twoFive complementary lullabies II pcs—Af and Cs—are employed at moments of high tension to bring relief to the otherwise static pitch collection. A Aeolian [C Diatonic] Underlying tone row Contrasting dyads Ex. 18 Pitch collections from Movement II of Five Lullabies Lullaby III begins with sopranos and altos winding around each other within a C Dorian scale. Secundal harmonies are once again emphasised, and, from time to time, accentuated through the use of a slow glissando in one part to slide from the harmonic interval of a major or minor second to a unison. Once again, non-modal pc feature at moments of tension, an accentuated Af in bb. 11 and 26, and a sustained dissonance between a high Df in the sopranos against a Cn in the altos at b. 23. After reaching this ceiling, lullabiespentaIII the pitch collection reduces back toFive the opening chord, cadencing on the dyad of a major second (C–D). C Dorian [Bb Diatonic] Underlying tone row b.1 b.2 b.6 “Tension” dyads b.10 b.11 b.23 Ex. 19 Pitch collections from Movement III of Five Lullabies between Bn–Gn at first, then Dn–Bf later, creates an affect of tremulous ecstasy, the soft contrasting dyad of Gs–As a contemplative echo. The harmonic structure is fairly simple, essentially varying between a G major and a Bf Acoustic scale. The ambiguous dyad of Gs–As, while belonging enharmonically to Bf Acoustic, presents no real tonal centricity, instead creating a harmonic ambiguity at phrase Five lullabies IV ends in order to maintain a sense of tonal instability. Underlying tone row b.1 84 | CANZONA2007 b.2 b.6 b.10 b.11 b.23 Ex. 20 Pitch collections from Movement IV of Five Lullabies Lullaby V completes the cycle through a gently lilting affect in which small melodic cells repeat and expand in a highly circular manner. Very much a lullaby in its softness and stasis, the nonsense text “calumbaya” recalls the African-American spiritual Kumbaya. Harmonically bimodal, the tenors are grounded in a D Dorian scale, whilst the sopranos unfold an F Harmonic Minor scale (the altos acting as a kind of collectional middle-man). These two modes share a number of pc, and are voiced in such a way that the pcs En, Fn and Gn form a shared trichord around which the altos, in particular, gravitate. Most importantly, Body exploits the expressive qualities of the flattened sixth degree of F Harmonic minor, Df, by introducing it at the high-point of the piece in b. 25 (see Ex. 22), increasing its dissonant logic by pitting it against a Dn in the tenors, once again articulating the “transgressive” boundary interval of a diminished octave. Thereafter, the typical procedures of pc collection reduction take effect, reducing gradually until the final bars in which the final harmony is, unsurprisingly, secundal in nature, set-class (025). Five Lullabies V D Dorian [C Diatonic] + ! " & " " " "' ( ) $# % ! - ya * * $" " " % F$"Harmonic Minor' *' 16 " " " $" $" ca - lum-ba - ya " # ca - lum - ba - ya ca - lum ba - * ' ' &% ' ! "' "% " " $" ( & ( " " #% " " " " $#*% # 16 "" * * - ba - ya ! ca" - lum ca - lum - ba - ya ba - ya ca' lum ' & ( ) $ " $#collections $" "V#of Five $ " $" " " % % ! " "from " " Movement " "' " Lullabies Ex. 21 Pitch ' "%ca - lum ba ya ca lum ba ya ca lum ba "- ya( " " "% # # " " ( ) & " "# ( ( " -" " "! + + + # * ba - ya ba - ya ca - lum - ' ba - ya ' ca-lum ' % & ( & ( ' ! " " $" " " " " $#*% 16 " "% # * "" " " #% * ! ca" - lum ' - ba - ya ca' lum & " ca " - " lum $" ba$"- ya " # $# % ! " "' "- ba -$ya" $" " "% " ( ) ca - lum ba "% ' ca - lum-ba - ya " - ya # ba " "- (ya ) ca - lum ( "+ "+ & " "# ( ( " " " "% # "! + # * ' ca-lum8ve dim. ! "' "% ba #- ya ba&%- ya ' " $" ( ca& - lum( - " #%- ba - ya "' " " " $#% " "" " ! ! $"" $# " " ""% " #' "% "! - ( + -+ ya " # ba - ya ba - ya 21 ca - lum ca - #& lum - ba - ya $" $" " $"% " ## & " ca - lum - ba ! ( " " "% " " " " " $" 21 ! ca - lum - ba " " # ca - lum&- ba $- ya " $" ! $ " $# " " #% ,ya ca "! # ba - ya ( $ ! " " "% " " """ " 21 ! ca - lum - ba " " # ca - lum&- ba -$ya " $" ! $ " $# ,ya " " # % ca "! # ba - ya ! ( " " "% " " " " " $" - ca - lum ' ' ' $#"% $" "" " $" $ " " $ " " " ( )" ( ( " + ya ca lum - ba - ba - ya - ca lum - ba - ya - ba - ya ca-lum ( " " " "% " ( "' " " #% ca - ' lum - ba ' $" " $" % # ca - lum$"- % ba$"' " " $" $ " " " ' lum - "% ya ( - (ba " " #( " "% ca - # lum - ba & "- " & " ba - ya ( " " " "% ba" - ya ( "' " " #% ca - ' lum - ba ' " $" # ca - lum $"- % ba$"' " " $" $ " " ' lum - "% ( - (ba " " #(ya " "% ca - # lum - &ba "- " " " & ca - lum " $" % & ( " " " "% ba" - ya ( "' " " #% ca - lum ba - ya ! # " " " ( & $" $ " " $ " % " $" " % " $" " % " " ! , + " " #% +( ( " " # & $+"""% ( "' "% + # & $" & $"" " "! ya ca - lum - ba ya ca - lum -ba ya ba # ba - ya ca - lum ba - ya ba - ya ' ' ' ! ( " ( "% " ( ' " " "' " " " "' " " # "" " "% " " " " 26 ! # ca - lum" -" ba " ( & $" $ca" "- $lum "% - ba " $" "% ca &- lum$" - " ba " $" -"% ya" ca" - lum&- ba$" $" ! + + + + " " -"% ya " " "ba " "- " "%- ya "+ " "ca% - lum - ba" "- "ya " "% "ca "- lum -ba #" + + + + + "! # ba ya' ca - lum ' - ba - ya ca '- lum-ba - ya ya ca - lum - ba ' ! ( " " ( "% " ( ' " " " " " " "' " " # " "" " "% "" 26 ! # ca - lum" -" ba !! ca - lum - ba$" " % ca - lum - ba $" -" % ya ca - lum - ba % " $ " " " " " " & $" " & $" $" ! + ( & $" $ " + + + "%- from "caLullabies "- lum -"+ba " -"% ya " " "ba " "- " ya " " Movement #"ca% - lum - ba " "- "ya V " "%of Five " Ex. 22 Extract + ! + + + + " # ' ' ba "- ya" ca( - lum - ba "-% ya"' ( ' ca - lum ' -" ba - ya ! ( " " "' " ca " - #lum-ba - ya " "" " "% """ "" ca - lum - ba 26 Lullaby IV features the interval of a rising major ninth in the men. The repetitive accentuation of the words “hasho, hashi” are like an aggressive expulsion of breath, fixated on the tone of B4. The phrasal oscillation of a major third, Bb Acoustic (F melodic minor ascending?) Contrasting dyad (G# minor?) G Mixolydian (A Aeolian?) ca - lum - "! # # ca - lum - ba - ya ba ba ca - lum " " "% + "% - ya ca - - " " + lum - ba ca - lum - ba ba ca - lum " " "% + - ya " ca - - "" + lum ba - ca - ya " " "% + + ba - ya - lum - ba ca - lum - ba " !! " "" " " ca - lum-ba - ya Summary The three chosen works in this current study are unlike much of Body’s musical output, in that they are devoid of any explicit element of transcription or quotation. Analysis of them uncovers a number of common features that demonstrate Body’s approach to musical materials, especially his control of pitch resources. Showing a strong preference for conflating and confounding clear distinctions between tonal and chromatic materials, Body clearly relishes “transgressions” of otherwise conventional materials. The surface modal materials derive primarily from the Pressing scales that were introduced to the Western canon most thoroughly by Claude Debussy. Yet many of the macrostructural chromatic procedures hint at much later composers, such as Luciano Berio. Drawing on past models of melodic contour, the Love Sonnets of Michelangelo feature typical nineteenth-century signifiers of emotional agitation: swooping upward leaps, sinuous melismata, rhythmic suspensions, chromatic prolongations on melodic high-points. The Five Lullabies, on the other hand, show a more placid, modally static harmonic language, appropriate for the more somnolent affect intended. Nevertheless, similar predilections are in force: the fixation on secundal harmonies, the use of simultaneous minor seconds as “tensional dyads” within an otherwise modal discourse, the use of non-modal tones at phrasal high-points. The Five Melodies for piano rely less on conventional melodic contour for effect, instead playfully revealing “inner melodies” through a combination of pianistic techniques. Again, however, the unfolding of a chromatically conceived macrostructure through a conventionally modal surface reveals the dual oppositional forces in synthesis. The concept of music as “seduction at a remove” underlines all of these technical considerations. Every technique is predicated on Body’s intuitive approach to sonority, a constant search for and relishing of “titillation” of the aural palette. He never allows a settled tonality to become wholly embedded before he introduces a suggestive chromaticism. As the quotations above from Susan McClary suggest, in relation to Carmen and Schubert, harmony, pitch and melodic contour—especially when carefully articulated with phrasal and rhythmic control, and heard within the right cultural context—can be energised with a strong semiotic force, alluding to a wide variety of human affects. Of these affects, the various sensuous, libidinal drives of humankind are surely not insignificant. The foregrounding of these semiotic realms through musical technique shows Body relishing the power of our deep-rooted drives in the formation of a subtle and affecting musical n world. REFERENCES Body, Jack. “Musical Transcription: from sound to symbol and back again”, Balungan, Vol. 6 No. 1–2, 1998. pp. 26–30 Body, Jack. “Sex, politics, religion — and music”, Massey University Composer Address, Massey University Press, Wellington, 1999 McClary, Susan. Feminine Endings: music, gender and sexuality. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991 McClary, Susan. “Constructions of Subjectivity in Schubert’s Music” in Queering the Pitch: the new gay and lesbian musicology. Routledge, NY, 1994, pp. 205–234 McClary, Susan. Conventional Wisdom: the content of musical form. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2000 McKinnon, Dugal. “Other Notes: Jack Body’s Alley” in Charles Ferrall, Paul Miller and Keren Smith (eds), East by South: China in the Australasian Imagination, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2005, pp. 262–286 Taruskin, Richard. “Material Gains: assessing Susan McClary”, Music & Letters, Vol. 90 No. 3, 2009, pp. 453–467 Tymoczko, Dimitri. “Scale Networks and Debussy”, Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 48 No. 2 (Fall, 2004), pp. 219–294 Whittall, Arnold. The Cambridge Introduction to Serialism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008 CANZONA2007 | 85
