Download Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Consciousness

How should we treat them?
Remarks on the Ethics of Artificial
Consciousness Research
Steve Torrance
Universities of Sussex and Middlesex UK
[email protected]
Exystence Workshop, Turin Sept 2003
Machine Consciousness: Complexity Aspects
Outline
• Why are we here?
– What’s the difference between AI research and AC research?
• Relation between consciousness and ethics
– Are our phenomenological concepts tied to ethics in a way that
non-phenomenological ones aren’t?
• The discrimination problem
– How do we tell real from lookalike consciousnesses? (Or
doesn’t it matter?)
• What ethical responsibilities attach to AC
researchers?
– In particular, issues to do with social acceptance and
proliferation.
Some preliminaries
• Machine Consciousness (MC) versus Artificial
Consciousness (AC)
– I prefer AC (to sharpen the contrast with AI)
• Machine versus organic (or biotechnological) AC?
– The former may get us readier results - but is it the right
lamp post to be looking under for the car-keys?
• Functional versus phenomenal consciousness
– I’m going to focus on the latter;
– It’s where I think the really interesting questions are
• The functional vs. material ends of the spectrum
– Getting closer to the material end using methods discussed
in the workshop may still leave a long, long way to go!...
However...
• All the investigative approaches used here have
enormous importance in terms of understanding the
nature of consciousness (or in terms of engineering
fruitfulness, etc.)
– there are often interesting things to find under whatever
lamp-post you happen to have chosen to look under…
Why are we here?
• What’s special about AC (versus AI) research?
– Psychological/philosophical insights? Greater
control/flexibility/effectiveness for achieving industrial
ends? Benefits to users? Rhetorical (gets funding)?
• Maybe AC research is/should also be seen to be about
creating artificial agents that aren’t just instruments for us,
– but also have their own interests, sakes, or their own potential
for suffering, benefit, etc.
• So is there an ETHICAL significance to AC research that’s
lacking in earlier phases of AI research?
– If so, it doesn’t seem to be widely recognized…
Where does science/engineering
end and ethics begin?
• 2 views:
– strict segregation between science and
ethics or normativity:
• no ‘ought’ from an ‘is’ – see quote from
Poincaré, to follow
– overlap and deep interrelation
• (at least when sci/eng. is to do with aspects of
mind, experience, well-being, etc.)
Poincaré’s principle
There can be no such thing as a scientific morality. But neither can there
be an immoral science. The reason for this is simple: it is – how shall I
put it? – a purely grammatical matter.
If the premises of a syllogism are both in the indicative, then the
conclusion will equally be in the indicative. In order for a conclusion to
be able to be taken as an imperative, at least one of the premises
would also have to be imperative. Now general scientific principles …
can only be in the indicative mood; and truths of experience will also be
in that mood. At the foundation of science there is and can be no other
possibility. Let the most subtle dialectician try to juggle with these
principles howsoever he will; let him combine them, scaffold them one
on top of another: whatever he derives from them will be in the
indicative. He will never obtain a proposition that says: Do this, or
Don't do that – that's to say, a proposition which either confirms or
contradicts any moral principle.
Henri Poincaré, 'La Morale et la Science', Dernières Pensées, Paris: Flammarion, 1913.
Enactive views of mind
• E. Thompson (ed) Between Ourselves: SecondPerson Issues in the Science of Consciousness,
Imprint Academic, 2001.
• Consciousness is radically bound up with
intersubjectivity and empathy:
– Individual conscious awareness is intimately interrelated with
recognition of awareness in others;
– Intersubjectivity is fundamentally empathetic in character;
• By implication the approach is ethical in character
– ‘Empathy is a precondition of a science of consciousness’
• See http://www.imprint.co.uk/jcs_8_5-7.html;
• Editor’s Introduction: ‘Empathy and Consciousness’ :
http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Thompson.pdf
Enactive science and ethics
• The enactive approach suggests that to recognize x
as phenomenally conscious is (in part) to take up an
evaluative or affective attitude towards x;
…so the notion of phenomenal consciousness may provide a
crucial ground for ethics
(though not necessarily the sole ground)
• Challenges Hume/Poincare fact-value dichotomy;
=> consciousness science as essentially ethical?
Intersubjectivity, enaction and the
other minds problem
• Traditionally the other minds problem is seen as the
problem of MY validating inferences to YOUR ‘inner’
states;
• The enactive approach takes intersubjectivity
(assumption of commonality of ‘inner’ states across
subjects) as a ground for individual subjective
experience;
– So conscious states are not seen as purely ‘inner’/’private’;
– Also you can’t dissociate the theoretical question from the
practice of interpersonal communication and concern.
Possible implications for AC
research
• It’s not clear how this works when trying to bridge the
gap between human and artificial minds!
– Perhaps any artificial consciousness will necessarily have to
participate in intersubjectivity, on this view.
– But of course there isn’t the same biological commonality
between human and machine
– At the very least, this suggests an interesting experimental
paradigm (cf Owen Holland’s referee)
• So the enactive, intersubjectivity-based approach
may not get us very far on its own
Is ‘mind’ a unified
explanatory field?
• Is mind a ‘single scientific kind’?
(a question raised, but not highlighted, at Birmingham)
• Does everything which is mental, derive its mentality from a
single fundamental kind of characteristic (e.g. a certain kind of
cognitive organization)?
(‘Psychological or explanatory monism’)
• Supporters of Informational or Computation-based conceptions
of mind usually assume psychological monism;
• some may argue that the assumption of monism is
NECESSARY to the MC enterprise...
– But IS IT the only possibility?
Psychological pluralism
• MY VIEW: I think that there’s room for legitimately
questioning psych monism.
• In general, ontological monism (physicalism) needn’t
entail psychological monism (e.g. computationalism);
• A ‘fully paid-up materialist’ could accept a computationalist
account of SOME mental processes (at least cognitive ones,
e.g. learning) without accepting it for ALL
– specifically one may wish to deny a computationalist account of
phenomenal states (e.g. tying them rather to lower-level biological
structure)
• More specific considerations favouring psych pluralism:
– intentional stance vs phenomenological stance;
– intrinsic ethical value
The intentional stance
• A Dennett-style ‘stance’ theory seems to fit well with
many cognitive mental properties
– e.g. ‘S believes that …’; ‘S understands that ….’; ‘S learned to …’
• It’s no doubt fallacious to look for an introspectible
inner state (or quale) as functionally central in such
cases…
– rather, an interpretative/predictive ‘stance-theoretic’ account
seems to be called for;
– and this fits in well with a informational account, and with the
idea that such processes can be replicated in various kinds
of computational architectures
Phenomenological stances?
(Heterophenomenology)
• But in the case of phenomenological states, a
‘stance-theoretic’ view doesn’t seem to suffice
– a heterophenomenological view may go quite a long way
towards capturing the complexity of such states;
– but on (my interpretation of) the enactive view, our
conception of such states (in another) essentially involves an
empathetic co-identification with the other’s experience;
– [such a conception won’t imply that such a state is private to
its owner - indeed the enactive view resists such a claim]
• Even without the enactive view, there seems to be a
kind of watershed between cognitive attributions and
phenomenal attributions in this connection...
Intrinsic moral worth (IMW)
• Another possible source of discontinuity between cognitive and
phenomenological?
• Perhaps any genuine AC would have to be considered as
having its own intrinsic experiential point of view, and hence an
intrinsic moral worth;
• i.e. it would deserve consideration for its own sake;
• this would be in contrast with purely cognitive systems, even
ones with highly complex features
– (No one ever suggested that we should care for the wellbeing of GOFAI or ANN systems)
– SO This mey be another way to show how our
phenomenological notions may be much more closely tied to
ethical ones than concepts of purely cognitive or productive
mentality.
Machine versus organic
phenomenal consciousness?
• Can there be any genuine AC unless it is organic rather than merely
machine-like in nature?
• Or are organisms a subset of machines?
• We need much clearer definitions of what differentiates a machine
from a living organism
– theoretical work by Maturana and Varela, and alternatively, by Hans
Jonas, are useful here
• Maybe our (phenomenal) consciousness derives from features of
our material make-up that can only be duplicated by low-level
constructions of organisms that metabolize, self-reproduce, selfrenew, etc. -
Nano - MC?
• Perhaps the appropriate level of aggregation for artificial
phenomenal consciousness is at the level of cell building blocks:
• Genuinely conscious systems MAY need to be built up at a
molecular level - e.g. by manufacturing artificial protein
molecules, etc.
• An alternative might be that very highly integrated nano-scale
computing technologies are necessary (cf.John Taylor): this
would imply that phenomenal consciousness is grounded in
features much lower than ones of abstract virtual machine
functionality (as with Sloman+Chrisley, or Franklin+Baars).
The misattribution problem:
False Positives and Negatives
1. There's scope for at least two kinds of error:
2. FALSE POSITIVES: if we house, feed, and otherwise protect
agents believing them wrongly to be CONSCIOUS, we unjustly
deprive genuine claimants of those benefits (unless resources
are unlimited);
3. FALSE NEGATIVES: if we withold benefits from agents
believing wrongly them to be NON-CONSCIOUS, then we have
treated them unjustly
• Clearly, the project of AC will be morally hazardous, unless we
can have solid grounds for being at least strongly confident in
our discriminations
• Are there grounds for erring on the inclusive side, and assuming
that any sufficiently close approximation to phenomenal
consciousness should be treated as such?
Ethical responsibilities of AC
researchers
• Powerful technological innovations tend to proliferate
beyond control
– (automobiles, computers, the internet, mobile phones)
• If genuine Acs became as widespread as PCs or
mobile phones, questions of misattribution would be
very serious.
• So that’s maybe why we have make such projections
now.
• Also the consequences of a mass social misperception of AC need to be considered...
• Such indirect social effects could be enormous, and
difficult to predict.
The long view
• There is an ethical imperative on technological
innovators to look deep into possible futures, and to
be sanguine about large-scale costs as well as largescale benefits
• Deep accounting: in the case of personal motorized
transport we now see enormous costs, with hindsight;
– Ivan Illich - when measuring the mean speed of getting from
A to B for a particular means of travel (bike, car, helicopter),
you have to include not just actual journey time, but also the
mean time that is required to earn the money to pay for both
the personal AND social costs of the means of travel;
• We need to adopt similar methods of deep
accounting prior to the production of innovations
rather than after the event
The ethical world-wide web?
• To create ACs is to create a new class of beings to
enter the ethical 'world-wide web’ (Kant’s kingdom of
ends)…
• Like reproductive cloning, this involves ethical
considerations that are quite novel, and difficult to
focus on clearly.
• Perhaps any research programme should have a
significant sub-project to investigate the ethical
implications.
Conclusions (1)
• The gap between cognitive and phenomenal aspects
of mind MAY mark a significant watershed, even
though most researchers tend to see a continuity;
• The watershed may be of ethical significance:
• So creating genuine MC will impose strong
responsibilities on the researchers involved, as the
beings that result may have genuine interests, moral
claims, etc..
Conclusions (2)
• These considerations may be reinforced by taking an
enactive, intersubjective view of consciousness of the
sort discussed;
• Also, an intentional stance-style approach, which
may work for cognitive properties, may not generalize
to phenomenal states;
• None of this is to diminish the importance of using the
current range of AC techniques both as a theoretical
investigation tool and as a way to enhance computer
technology.
Conclusions (3)
• All the same, genuine MC may perhaps be realizable
ONLY using techniques much closer to biotechnology
than to most of the approaches discussed in the
workshop
• (with the possible exception of the CODAM approach,as
outlined by John Taylor, if realized at nano-scale levels of
integration);
• Whether genuine MC comes sooner rather than later,
any major research programme of this sort ought to
involve an investigation of ethical and social impacts
as a sub-theme;
• Any such investigation should take a long view, and
consider the implications of any large-scale (planetwide) proliferation of (real or ersatz) MC systems.