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Introduction
to
Normative
Ethics
Normative Ethics:
Normative ethics is the study of right and wrong
Seeks to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and
wrong conduct
What we ‘ought’ to do goes beyond, and cannot be justified
by, statements about the facts of human behavior
Presupposes freedom of choice… If we are not free, we
cannot be blamed or praised for our actions
Major Systems: Virtue Ethics, Hedonism, Kantian Ethics,
Consequentialism (Utilitarianism, Egoism, Social-Contract
Theory, etc.)
Free Will vs. Determinism:
Normative ethics presupposes freedom of choice
If we are free to make choices, then we can be held
responsible for what we do. Praise or blame are
appropriate
We can act on the basis of values that we hold
In considering the moral implications of actions, we have to
assess the degree of freedom available to the agent
Though we are all conditioned by many factors, there
remains a measure of freedom exercised within the
imposed constraints
Free Will vs. Determinism (continued):
➔ Determinism - all events, including human action, are
ultimately determined by causes external to the will.
● Determinists claim individual human beings have no
free will and cannot be held morally responsible for
their actions
➔ No scope for human freedom/choice. We are automatons
➔ If we have no choice in what we do, it makes no sense to
speak of moral action springing from choices and
values, or action being worthy of praise or blame
Moral Relativism:
➔ individual relativism - individual people create their own
moral standards.
● Nietzsche argued that the superhuman creates a
morality distinct from the slave-like value system of the
masses
➔ cultural relativism - morality is grounded in the approval of
one's society.
● Denies the absolute, universal nature of morality
● Moral values change from society to society
throughout time and throughout the world
Case Study #1: Why be moral?
Many well-known answers to the question “Why be moral?” have
been offered throughout history. All are subject to serious problems
and objections. That we should be moral at all, given the hardships of
life and pressures we’re often put under, is obvious only to the naive.
The study of ethics is the systematic attempt to develop an ethical
theory founded on sound reasoning and truth, rather than opinion,
belief, or common sense. As an introduction to our ethics unit, answer
the following question:
Why not shortchange a blind news vender by telling him he was paid
with a five dollar, rather than a one dollar bill?
In your answer, avoid cliches and flippant generalizations. Avoid
vague pontificating and righteous knee-jerk moralizing. Use good
reasoning and your powers of explanation to make your case.
Warm-Up Question:
In your view, what does it mean to be happy?
What constitutes “the good life” for human
beings? How ought one to live?
Virtue Ethics:
Agent centered
Sought to discover what makes for “the good life,”or a life of
happiness
What is happiness? An activity of the soul in accord with
perfect virtue
Eudaimonia =(Greek) having a good indwelling spirit or
being in a contented state of health, happiness, prosperity
Happiness is not a goal; it is something that accompanies
certain activities; it is a way of engaging in the various
activities of life.
Some Examples:
Courage… A person who engages in a
course of conduct courageously does not
arrive at a goal called “courage”; rather, it’s
a way of doing things, e.g. acting bravely
Happiness is a way of engaging in the
various activities of life--eating, working,
making love, studying, etc. If one engages in such
activities in a certain way, we can call that person happy
Still... What is the good life? And how ought one to behave in
order to be happy?
Aristotle’s Strategy:
1. The good life for people is a life of happiness.
2. People ought to behave so as to achieve
happiness.
3. The Doctrine of the Mean, or “golden mean,” is
the formula one needs to follow in order to be
happy.
4. The proper way for one to behave in the moral
sphere is virtuously, in accordance with the
mean.
Criticisms of Virtue Ethics:
Golden Mean is not absolute, since how one should behave is
relative.
A philosophy of the “good life” cannot always help us make
moral choices.
Cannot answer moral questions in specific situations, as in,
Should I keep a promise or not? Tell the truth or lie?
It is not always the case that happiness will result from moderate
behavior.
There are some cases where only “immoderate” behavior is
proper.
Ben Franklin’s 13 Virtues:
1. Temperance: Eat not to dullness,
drink not to elevation.
1. Silence: Speak not but what may
benefit others or yourself. Avoid
trifling conversation.
1. Order: Let all your things have their
places. Let each part of your business have its time.
1. Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought.
Perform without fail what you resolve.
2. Frugality: Make no expense but to do good to others
or yourself: i.e., waste nothing.
Ben Franklin’s 13 Virtues:
6. Industry: Lose no time. Be always employed in
something useful. Cut off all unnecessary actions.
7. Sincerity: Use no hurtful deceit. Think innocently
and justly; and if you speak, speak accordingly.
8. Justice: Wrong none by doing injuries or by omitting
the benefits that are your duty.
9. Moderation: Avoid extremes. Forbear resenting
injuries so much as you think they deserve.
10.Cleanliness: Tolerate no uncleanness in body,
clothes, or habitation.
Ben Franklin’s 13 Virtues:
11.Tranquility: Be not disturbed at trifles, or at
accidents common or unavoidable.
12.Chastity: Rarely use venery but for health or
offspring; never to dullness, weakness, or the
injury of your own or another's peace or
reputation.
13.Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
Journal #2: Virtue Ethics
1. Which of Ben Franklin’s virtues do you find
compelling or important in the pursuit of a life
well-lived? Why? Pick at least two (2) and explain.
2. Which of Ben Franklin’s virtues would you leave
off of your list? Why. Pick at least one, preferably
two, and explain.
3. How/why is virtue ethics not a form of what
philosophers call “consequentialism”?
1.Should Callie get to be a cheerleader at Andrews
High School, even though she is disabled and
unable to do gymnastics? Why? Why not?
2.How can Aristotle’s virtue ethics help us decide
what to do in this situation?
Telos, Honor, and Justice
Justice is teleological and honorific.
Defining rights and distributing justice requires determining the
telos (purpose, nature, or end) of the social practice in question
To reason about the telos of a practice is, in part, to reason about
what virtues it should honor.
For Aristotle, justice involves two factors: “things, and the
persons to whom things are assigned”
What is the purpose of a flute? To be played well.
The purpose of playing flute? To produce excellent music
Who should receive an orchestra spot? The best players
Telos and Honor: Considering Affirmative Action and
Pot
What should be the Telos of a university? And how can this
help us decide whether or not affirmative action is just?
What virtues should a university honor?
Think Critically: Using the framework of Virtue Ethics, how
might it actually be wrong or ill-advised to legalize
marijuana? On the flip side, how could Virtue Ethics
support legislation to legalize marijuana? What should
be the Telos of society?
Hedonism/Epicureanism
Hedonism is the doctrine that pleasure
is the sole good.
Epicurean Hedonism consists mainly in
advice for living moderately, but
pleasurably.
To live pleasantly without suffering from any of the
undesirable effects of such living.
Pleasure = Good; Pain = Bad
If one engages in a life of pleasure that leads to pain, such
a life would be regarded as a bad one.
Passive vs. Active Pleasure
Active pleasures - those which are
accompanied by pain
Passive pleasures - those which are
not accompanied by pain
Examples of “active” pleasures - gluttony; fame
through a life of public service or hard work; drinking;
marriage; sex (leads to fatigue, remorse, depression)
Examples of “passive” pleasures - friendship;
conversation; thought; freedom; peace of mind
The Hedonic Treadmill:
Concept in economics/philosophical
discipline of “happiness studies”
Beyond a certain point, as a person
begins to make more money or
experiences an increase in external
pleasures, expectation and desire
tends to rise in tandem with those external changes, in
turn leading to no permanent gain in happiness.
Experiencing pleasure or making money is not intrinsically bad,
but once our basic needs & wants are met, having more
won’t lead to greater happiness
Relationship of Happiness to Money
(for someone with friends, freedom, etc.)
Happiness
and PerCapita
Income in
the U.S.
(1946-91)
Epicurus’ Answer:
The key to a pleasurable existence is to have a peaceful and
simple life, with friends.
Rare, hard-to-obtain pleasures may be great, but think of all
you have to sacrifice to get them!
Expensive tastes are developed. If happiness is bound up in
being wealthy, fear/uncertainty begins to dominate life.
Life becomes more and more about securing the resources
that we’ve made our happiness depend on, and less about
doing things that actually make us happy.
To be happy & peaceful, live simply. Don’t get too involved in
wealth, politics, or physical desires like sex or food.
The Tetrapharmakos: “Four Part Cure”
1. God is nothing to fear.
2. Death is nothing to worry
about.
3. It is easy to acquire the
good things in life.
4. It is easy to endure the
terrible things.