Download File - World History Class

Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World:
A Brief Global History
First Edition
CHAPTER 4
Culture and Religion in Eurasia & N. Africa
500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
Copyright © 2009 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
I: OPENING VIGNETTE
A. In 2004, China celebrated the 2,555th
birthday of Confucius, despite Communism.
1. Buddhism and
Christianity also growing
rapidly in China
2. part of enduring legacy
of the classical world
B. In the period around 500 B.C.E., there was a great
emergence of durable cultural traditions that have
shaped the world ever since.
1. China : Kong Fuzi (Confucius) and Laozi
2. India : Hinduism and Buddhism
3. Middle East: development of monotheism
a. Persia : Zoroastrianism (prophet Zarathustra)
b. Israel : Judaism (prophets such as Isaiah)
4. Greece : rational humanism (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, et al.)
5. all sought an alternative to polytheism, placating of gods
through ritual and sacrifice
a. quest for source of order and meaning in the universe
b. guide humans to personal moral or spiritual
transformation (especially development of
compassion)
c. the questions they pose still trouble and inspire humankind
d. they defined their distinctive cultures
C. Why did all these traditions emerge at
about the same time?
1. some historians point to major social
changes
a. iron-age technology led to higher productivity and
deadlier war
b. growing cities, increasing commerce
c. emergence of new states and empires
d. new contacts between civilizations
2. it’s a mystery why particular societies
developed particular answers
II. China and the Search for Order
A. China had a state-building tradition that went
back to around 2000 B.C.E.
1. idea of Mandate of
Heaven was established
by 1122 B.C.E.
(foundation of the Zhou
dynasty)
2. breakdown into the
chaos of the “age of
warring states” (403–221
B.C.E.)
B. The Legalist Answer
1. Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher
2. principle: strict rules, clearly defined and
strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder
3. pessimistic view of human nature; only the
state can act in people’s long-term interest
4. promotion of farmers and soldiers, who
performed the only essential functions in
society
5. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty
reunification of China
C. The Confucian Answer
1. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) was an
educated, ambitious aristocrat
a. spent much of life looking for a political
position to put his ideas into practice
b. Confucius’s ideas had enormous impact on
China and the rest of East Asia
c. his teachings were collected by students as
the Analects
d. elaboration and commentary on his ideas
by later scholars, creating Confucianism as a
body of thought
2. principle: the moral example of
superiors is the answer to disorder
a. society consists of unequal relationships
b. duty of the superior member to be sincere
and benevolent
c. will inspire deference and obedience from
the inferior member
FILIAL PIETY
• The Song dynasty painting served
as an illustration of an ancient
Confucian text called the “Classic
of Filial Piety,” originally
composed sometime around the
4th century BCE and subsequently
reissued many times.
• Here, a son kneels submissively in
front of his parents.
• The long-enduring social order
that Confucius advocated began
at home with unquestioning
obedience and the utmost
respect for parents and other
senior members of the family.
C. The Confucian Answer
3. humans have capacity for
improvement: education is the key
a. advocated a broad liberal arts
education
b. application of liberal arts
education to government problems
c. need for ritual and ceremonies
4. after Legalism was discredited,
Confucianism became the official
ideology of the Chinese state
5. the family as a model for political
life, with focus on filial piety
a. defined role of women as being
humble, serving husbands
b. woman writer Ban Zhao (45–116
C.E.): Lessons for Women
C. The Confucian Answer
6. emphasized the great
importance of history
a. ideal good society was a past
golden age
b. “superior men” had outstanding
moral character and intellect; not
just aristocrats
c. created expectations for
government: emperors to keep taxes
low, give justice, and provide for
material needs
7. Confucianism was
nonreligious in character
a. emphasis was practical, focused on
this world
b. did not deny existence of gods and
spirits, but the educated elite had little
to do with them
D. The Daoist Answer
1. associated with the legendary
Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.),
author of the Daodejing (The
Way and Its Power)
2. Daoism was in many ways the
opposite of Confucianism
a. education and striving for
improvement was artificial and
useless
b. urged withdrawal into the
world of nature
3. central concept: dao: the way
of nature, the underlying
principle that governs all
natural phenomena
D. The Daoist Answer
4. elite Chinese often
regarded Daoism as a
complement to
Confucianism
5. Daoism entered popular
religion
a. sought to tap the power of
the dao for practical purposes
(magic, the quest for
immortality)
b. provided the ideology for
peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow
Turbans)
III. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
• Hinduism called for men in
the final stage3 of life to leave
ordinary ways of living and
withdraw into the forests to
seek spiritual liberation, or
moksha.
• Here, in an illustration from
an early 13th century Indian
manuscript, a holy man
explores a text with three
disciples in a secluded rural
setting
A. Indian cultural development was different
1. elite culture was enthusiastic
about the divine and about
spiritual matters
2. Hinduism (the Indian religious
tradition) had no historical
founder
a. developed along with Indian
civilization
b. spread into Southeast Asia, but
remained associated with India
and the Indians above all
c. was never a single tradition;
“Hinduism” is a term invented by
outsiders
B. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to
Philosophical Speculation
1. widely recognized sacred texts
provided some common ground
within the diversity of Indian
culture and religion
2. the Vedas (poems, hymns,
prayers, rituals)
a. compiled by Brahmins (priests),
transmitted orally
b. were not written down (in Sanskrit)
until around 600 B.C.E.
c. provide a glimpse of Indian
civilization in 1500–600 B.C.E.
d. role of Brahmins in practicing
elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them
power and wealth
B. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to
Philosophical Speculation
3. the Upanishads (mystical,
philosophical works) developed in
response to dissatisfaction with
Brahmins
a. composed between 800 and 400
B.C.E.
b. probe inner meaning of Vedic
sacrifices—introspection
c. central idea: Brahman (the World
Soul) as ultimate reality
d. atman, the individual human soul,
was part of Brahma
e. ultimate goal moksha union of
atman with Brahma
f. achieving union involved many
lifetimes
g. samsara reincarnation/rebirth
central to the process
h. karma governed samsara
B. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to
Philosophical Speculation
4. Hinduism legitimated and
expressed India's gender system
a. women increasingly forbidden to
learn Vedas and participate in
public rituals
b. Law ofManu defined women as
beholden to men in every phase
of life
c. sexual pleasure legitimate goal
for men and women as detailed
in the Kamasutra
d. many Hindu deities were female
5. multiple paths to fulfillment in
Hindu religious thought
a. Brahmin priests and especially
wandering ascetics spread ideas
C. The Buddhist Challenge
1. developed side by side with
philosophical Hinduism
2. Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566–ca. 486
B.C.E.)
a. spiritual journey led to
“enlightenment” (insight) at age 35
b. his followers saw him as the Buddha,
the Enlightened One
3. central Buddhist teaching: life is
suffering
a. sorrow’s cause is craving for
individual fulfillment, attachment to self
b. “cure” it with modest and moral life,
meditation
c. goal is achievement of enlightenment
or nirvana (extinguishing of individual
identity)
C. The Buddhist Challenge
•
•
•
•
•
•
This 6th century CE image of the Buddha
from eastern India shows a classical
representation of the great teacher.
The Buddha's right hand with palm
facing the viewer indicates reassurance,
or “have no fear.”
The partially webbed fingers are among
the lakshanas, or signs of a Buddha
mage, that denote the Buddha´s unique
status.
So too is the knot on the top of his head,
symbolizing enlightenment.
The elongated ear lobes reminds the
viewer that earlier in his life the Buddha
had worn heavy and luxurious earrings,
while his partially closed and downcast
eyes and his bare feet indicate
detachment from the world.
C. The Buddhist Challenge
4. large elements of Hinduism are present
in Buddhist teaching
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
life as an illusion
karma and rebirth
overcoming demands of the ego
practice of meditation
hope for release from the cycle of rebirth
5. much of Buddhism challenged
Hinduism
a. rejection of Brahmins’ religious authority
b. lack of interest in abstract speculation
c. need for individuals to take responsibility
for their own spiritual development
d. strong influence of Indian patriarchy
6. also challenged inequalities of caste
system
C. The Buddhist Challenge
7. while at first opposed, Buddha ultimately allowed
separate female orders of nuns
a. rules clearly subordinated nuns to men
b. Buddha viewed women as an obstacle to male
enlightenment
c. nuns found relative freedom and independence
8. appealed especially to lower castes and women in
India
a. teaching was in local language, not classical
Sanskrit
b. linked to local traditions with establishment of
monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the
Buddha)
c. state support from Ashoka (268–232 B.C.E.)
9. the split within Buddhism
a. early Buddhism (Theravada, or Teaching of the
Elders)
b. by early in the Common Era, development of
Mahayana (Great Vehicle)
D. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and
Devotion
1. Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism in
India
2. Mahayana Buddhism in particular spread elsewhere in Asia
3. first millennium C.E.: development of a more popular
Hinduism
a.
b.
c.
expressed in epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana
action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path
to liberation
bhakti (worship) movement began in south India
IV: Moving toward Monotheism: The Search for
God in the Middle East
IV. Moving toward Monotheism: The Search for
God in the Middle East
A. The radical notion of a
single supreme Deity
developed in
Zoroastrianism and
Judaism and became
the basis for both
Christianity and Islam.
B. Zoroastrianism
1. Persian prophet Zarathustra traditionally
dated to sixth or seventh century B.C.E.
2. some state support during Achaemenid
dynasty (558-330 B.C.E.)
3. single god Ahura Mazda is source of truth,
light, goodness
a. cosmic struggle with Angra Mainyu
(force of evil)
b. Ahura Mazda will eventually win,
aided by a final savior
c. judgment day: restoration of world to
purity and peace
d. need for the individual to choose good
or evil
B. Zoroastrianism
4. Zoroastrianism did not spread widely beyond
Persia
a. Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty were
disastrous for it
b. flourished in Parthian (247 B.C.E.-224
C.E.) and Sassanid (224-651 C.E.) empires
c. final decline caused by arrival of Islam;
some Zoroastrians fled to India, became
known as Parsis ("Persians")
5. Jews in the Persian Empire were influenced by
Zoroastrian ideas
a. idea of God vs. Satan
b. idea of a last judgment and bodily
resurrection
c. belief in the final defeat of evil, with help
of a savior (Messiah)
d. remaking of the world at the end of time
C. Judaism
1. developed among the Hebrews, recorded in
Hebrew scripture
a. early tradition of migration to Palestine, led by
Abraham
b. early tradition of enslavement in Egypt and escape
c. establishment of state of Israel ca. 1000 B.C.E.
2. Judean exiles in Babylon retained their cultural
identity, returned to homeland distinctive
conception of God
a. Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty
b. relationship with Yahweh as a covenant (contract)
c. lofty, transcendent deity—but communication was
possible
d. from god of war to god of social justice and
compassion
3. foundation for both Christianity and Islam
V. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece:
The Search for a Rational Order
A. Classical Greece did not create an enduring
religious tradition.
1.
2.
3.
system of polytheism, fertility cults, and
so on, remained
Greek intellectuals abandoned
mythological framework
a. world is a physical reality governed
by natural laws
b. humans can understand those laws
c. human reason can work out a
system for ethical life
perhaps was caused by diversity and
incoherence of mythology
a. intellectual stimulation of great
civilizations
b. possible influence of growing role of
law in Athenian political life
B. The Greek Way of Knowing
B. The Greek Way of Knowing
1. flourished 600-300 B.c.E. (same time as city-states flourished)
2. key element: the way questions were asked (argument, logic,
questioning of received wisdom)
3. best example: Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) of Athens
a. constant questioning of assumptions
b. conflict with city authorities over Athenian democracy
c. accused of corrupting the youth, sentenced to death
4. earliest classical Greek thinkers
a. applied rational questioning to nature
b. application to medicine
5. application of Greek rationalism to understand human behavior
a. Herodotus: why did Greeks and Persians fight each other?
b. Plato (429-348 B.c.E.) outlined design for a good society
(Republic) led by a "philosopher-king"
c. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) most complete expression of the
Greek way of knowing
C. The Greek Legacy
1. many people continued traditional
religious beliefs and practices
2. Greek rationalism spread widely
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
helped by Alexander's Empire and that
of the Romans
Christian theology was expressed in
Greek philosophical terms
classical Greek texts preserved in
Byzantine Empire
Western Europe: neglect of classical
scholarship after fall of Roman Empire
part of Islamic culture
VI. The Birth of Christianity... with Buddhist
Comparisons
Comparing Jesus and the Buddha
A. The Lives of the Founders
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gautama was royal, Jesus was from a lower-class family
both became spiritual seekers
a. both were mystics: claimed personal experience of another level
of reality
b. based life's work on their religious experience
both were "wisdom teachers"
a. challenged conventional values
b. urged renunciation of wealth
c. stressed love or compassion as the basis of morality
d. called for personal transformation of their followers
important differences
a. Jesus had Jewish tradition of single personal deity
b. Jesus' teaching was more social and political than Gautama's
c. Jesus was active for about three years; Gautama for over forty
d. Jesus was executed as a criminal; Gautama died of old age
B. The Spread of New Religions
1. probably neither intended to
create a new religion, but both did
2. followers transformed both into
gods
3. how Christianity became a world
religion
a. process began with Paul (10-65 C.E.)
b. women had more opportunities (but
early still reflected patriarchy of time)
c. early converts were typically urban
lower class and women
d. attraction of miracle stories
e. attraction of Christian care for each
other
B. The Spread of New Religions
4. spread of Christianity
a. Paul spread to modern Turkey and Syria
b. Syria and Persia heartlands of the Church in the
East with own organization and liturgy
c. Armenia first place where rulers adopted
Christianity as a state region
d. Syrian and Persian missionaries brought
Christianity to southern India and Central Asia
e. by 570 C.E. some Arabs had become Christians
f. Coptic church emerged in Egypt
g. North Africa furnished intellectuals and martyrs
h. during fourth century Christianity became state
religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia)
i. Axum Christianity linked to Coptic Church, but
used local Ge'ez language
B. The Spread of New Religions
5. Roman persecution of Christians as "atheists" for their antagonism to all
divine powers except their one god
a.
b.
c.
d.
ended with conversion of Emperor Constantine in early fourth century c.E
later Roman emperors tried to use Christianity as social glue
Theodosius ordered closure of all polytheistic temples
start process by which Roman Empire and later all of Europe became
overwhelmingly Christian
6. Buddhism: Ashoka's support helped, but Buddhism was never promoted
as India's sole religion
a. Buddhism ultimately absorbed into Hinduism in India
7. In Roman empire no renewal of Roman polytheism
a. Christianity endured in Europe
b. but took up some practices from Roman world
8. both Buddhism and Christianity created networks of cultural
connections
How might you understand the actions and attitudes of
Perpetua? Is her experience accessible to people living in a
largely secular modern society?
•
•
•
•
•
Perpetua placed devotion to her faith above all other parts
of her life, including her responsibilities as a daughter and
mother.
Her decision to help the gladiator cut her throat reflects
her deep belief in the promise of a Christian afterlife.
In terms of the accessibility of Perpetua's martyrdom, on
one level it is a very human story. She is torn between
conflicting concerns: her father's wishes and the
reputation of her family, the terrible condition in prison,
her desire to take care of her baby, and her devotion to
her faith. It is not hard to have empathy with someone in
such a difficult and trying situation.
However, in modern secular societies people are not
normally put to death for their beliefs and so her
experience may seem remote to some modern readers.
Her willingness to die for her faith may not resonate with
some in modern society who either do not have a faith or
are not as attached to theirs as Perpetua was to hers.
C. Institutions, Controversies, and
Divisions
1.
2.
3.
Christianity developed a male hierarchical
organization
a. women were excluded from priesthood
b. concern for uniform doctrine and practice
c. emergence of bishop of Rome (pope) as
dominant leader in Western Europe
Buddhism clashed over interpretation of the
Buddha's teachings
a. series of councils did not prevent divisions
b. less sense of "right" and "wrong" than with
Christian conflicts
Buddhism did not develop an overall church
hierarchy
VII. Reflection: Religion and
Historians
A. Religion is a sensitive subject for historians, too.
B. There are important points of tension between believers and
historians.
1. change: religions present selves as timeless, but historians see
development over time, as a human phenomenon
2. experience of a divine reality: historians have trouble dealing with
believers' experiential claims
3. which group within a religion is "authentic": historians usually refuse
to take sides
C. It can be difficult to reconcile personal religious belief with historical
scholarship.
D. Second-wave religious traditions are enormously important in world
history.
Chapter 5: Eurasian Cultural Traditions, 500
B.C.E.–500 C.E.
iClicker
Questions
Comparison: Which of the following traditions
focused more on the affairs of this world and
credited human rationality with the power to
understand that reality?
a. Confucianism
b. Judaism
c. Buddhism
d. Hinduism
Connection: The cultural traditions that emerged
in the several centuries surrounding 500 b.c.e. in
China, India, the Middle East, and Greece
a. are all best thought of as philosophical traditions and mark a
decline in the importance of religion in world history.
b. all had a profound impact on elites, while non-elites continued
to follow older traditions.
c. all had a profound impact on the region in which they formed
but have also spread widely.
d. all became important influences on their regions but have
since been replaced by completely new traditions.
Change: Which of the following has NOT been
put forward as a reason why classical cultural
traditions all emerged at roughly the same time?
a. Increased trade contact between societies
b. New more stable social orders and with them less
social change around 500 b.c.e.
c. Growing cities and merchant classes where new ideas
sometimes found receptive audiences
d. Iron Age technology making possible more
productive economies and more deadly warfare
Discussion Starter: Which of the following
classical traditions did you find most appealing?
a. Zoroastrianism
b. Greek Rationalism
c. Buddhism
d. Confucianism
Discussion Starter: When you consider the
religious traditions of the classical era do you
think
a. that the similarities between the traditions are more
striking than their differences?
b. that the similarities between the traditions are in fact
superficial?
c. that all the traditions at one level are alike?
d. that some traditions share important similarities, but
no distinctive feature is shared by all traditions?
Discussion Starter: Do you believe that the
textbook has done a good job outlining the
classical religious/cultural traditions in a way
that is fair to all of them?
a. Yes
b. No
1. Is a secular outlook on the world an essentially
modern phenomenon, or does it have precedents in
the second-wave era?
• The philosophical systems of both China and Greece are central to
any possible answers.
• In China, Legalism possessed several features of a modern secular
political philosophy in its reliance on law and the enforcement of
law to secure a stable society.
• The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and
practical. Confucianism was primarily concerned with human
relationships, with effective government, and with social harmony.
• Greek thought, with its emphasis on argument and logic, relentless
questioning of received wisdom, confidence in human reason, and
enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to
the gods, also provides a precedent for modern secular outlooks on
the world.
2."Religion is a double-edged sword, both supporting and
undermining political authority and social elites." How would
you support both sides of this statement?
3. How would you define the appeal of the religious/cultural
traditions discussed in this chapter? To what groups were they
attractive, and why?
4. In what different ways did these religious or
cultural traditions define the purposes of
human life?
5.Looking Back: What relationships can you see between the
political dimensions of second-wave civilizations described in
Chapter 3 and their cultural or religious aspects discussed in
this chapter?
• In the case of China, Legalism was the defining political ideology
that the Qin used to reunite the Empire;
• Confucian ideas underpin the bureaucratic organization of the
empire and reinforce the Mandate from Heaven.
• In the case of India, the rich diversity in the Hindu faith reflects the
cultural diversity that made empires more difficult to create and
sustain in the region;
• Buddhist thought helps to explain Ashoka's ruling principles.
• Zoroastrianism casts light on the Persian imperial traditions that
sought to link the emperor with Ahura Mazda.
• Greek Rationalism sheds light on why Greeks were willing to
experiment with popular participation in government and
legitimacy based on law rather than supernatural authority.