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Effective Training: Strategies,
Systems and Practices, 3rd Edition
Chapter Three
P. Nick Blanchard and James W. Thacker
Factors Determining Human
Performance
PERFORMANCE (P)
MOTIVATION (M)
KNOWLEDGE,
SKILLS, AND
ATTITUDES (KAS)
ENVIRONMENT (E)
P = M x KSA x E
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Universal Need Based
Theories of Motivation

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs


Physiological, security, social, achievement,
self actualization
ERG

Existence, relatedness, growth
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Cultural Based Need Theories
of Motivation

McClelland


Achievement, affiliation, power
Hofstede

Collectivism/individualism,
masculinity/femininity, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance
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3.5
Hofstede’s Framework

Power Distance
•

Uncertainty Avoidance
•

Degree to which influence/control are unequally distributed
among individuals within a particular culture
Degree to which members of a society attempt
to avoid ambiguity, risk, and indefiniteness
of future
Individualism / Collectivism
•
•
Extent to which society expects people to take
care of themselves and their immediate families
The degree to which individuals believe
they are masters of their own destiny
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3.6
Hofstede’s Framework (cont.)
•

Tendency of group members to focus on the common
welfare and feel loyalty toward one another
Masculinity/Femininity
•
Degree to which acquisition of money
and material things is valued versus
quality of life

Confucian dynamism
•
•
•
Stability of society is based on unequal relationships
Family is the prototype of all organizations
People should treat others as they would like to be
treated
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INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM
Please indicate you level of agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements
using the following scale:
Strongly Disagree
`
1
Neither Disagree nor Agree
2
3
4
Strongly Agree
5
6
_____ 1. I would rather struggle through a personal problem by myself than discuss it with my
friends.
_____ 2. I do my own things without minding about my colleagues/co-workers, when I am
among them.
______3. I like to live close to my close friends.
______4. I would pay absolutely no attention to my close friends’ views when deciding what
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kind of work to do.
______5. We ought to develop the character of independence among students, so that they do
not rely upon other students’ help in their schoolwork.
______6. It is a personal matter whether I worship money or not. Therefore, it is not
necessary for my friends to give my counsel.
______7. There is everything to gain and nothing to lose for classmates to group themselves
together for study and discussion.
______8. Classmates’ assistance is indispensable to getting a good grade at school.
______9. If you work, and you have to choose between (A) getting along very well with your
co-workers, and (B) being very competent and efficient in doing the job, what
combination of the two aspects would you like best? (Use the scale below to
make your response for this question.)
1 = 100% A
4 = 40% A, 60%B
2 = 80% A, 20%B
5 = 20% A, 80%B
Chapter 3
3 = 60% A, 40%B
6 = 100% B
8
_____10. Man is a social animal; he cannot flourish and grow without identifying himself
with some group.
_____11. Some of life’s greatest satisfactions are found in working cooperatively with others.
_____12. Individuals do not really fulfill their human potentials unless they involve themselves
deeply in some group.
_____13. It is often more gratifying to work for the accomplishment of a goal held by a group
to which one belongs than to work for the attainment of a purely personal goal.
_____14. In life an individual should for the most part “go it alone’ assuring oneself of privacy,
having time to oneself, attempting to resist being influenced by others.
_____15. It is just as important to work toward group goals and adhere to the established rules
of the group as it is to gratify one’s individual desires.
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COLLECTIVISM SCORING







ITEMS 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, AND 14 ARE
REVERSED SCORED
6=1
5=2
4=3
3=4
2=5
1=6
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CULTURAL VALUES







Variable
United States
Collectivism
Femininity
Masculinity
Power Distance
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Taiwan
57.72
4.47
4.95
2.19
66.78
4.77
4.65
1.98
3.18
3.56
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INDIVIDUALISM
/COLLECTIVISM



HIGH – United States (1/53), Australia, Great
Britain, New Zealand, Denmark, Sweden,
France
MODERATE – Japan, Iran, Brazil, Arab
Countries, Greece
LOW – Columbia, Venezuela, Panama,
Guatamala
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MASCULINITY/FEMININITY



HIGH – Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy,
Mexico, United States (15/53)
MODERATE – Canada, Malaysia,
Pakistan, Brazil, Singapore, Israel
LOW – Denmark, Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden
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POWER DISTANCE



HIGH – Malaysia, Mexico, Venezuela, Arab
Countries, India, Singapore
MODERATE – Thailand, Portugal, Greece,
South Korea, Taiwan, Spain, Japan
LOW – United States (38/53), Finland,
Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, Denmark
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UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE



HIGH – Greece, Portugal, Belgium,
Japan, Peru, France
MODERATE – Taiwan, Arab Countries,
Thailand, Iran, Finland
LOW – United States (43/53), India,
Great Britain, Sweden
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Classical Conditioning
Food
------------------ Salivation
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Bell
Neutral Stimulus
Food (UCS)-------------- Salivation
Bell
------------------- Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
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Aversive Conditioning
Loud Noise ---------------- Aversive Reaction
(UCS)
(UCR)
Mouse (NS)
Loud Noise (UCS) --------- Aversive Reaction
Mouse (CS) ----------- Aversive Reaction (CR)
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Operant Conditioning


Skinner
Organism active/goal directed
Stimulus  Response  Reinforcement
|_____+_____|
Thorndike – “Law of Effect”
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Reinforcement and
Punishment
Positive
Reinforcer
Negative
Reinforcer
Present
after behavior
Positive
Reinforcement
Punishment
Withdraw
after behavior
Punishment
Negative
Reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement


Continuous – every time behavior
occurs
Partial


Fixed – ratio and interval
Variable – ratio and interval
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Punishment

Side Effects





Temporary suppression
No knowledge of correct behavior
Generalized to inappropriate situations
Punisher associated with punishment
Tendency to be inconsistent
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Reducing Side Effects



Make undesired behavior clear
Make desired behavior clear
Provide reinforcers for desired behavior
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Expectancy Model
abilities/training

Effort  Performance  Outcomes
role perceptions

Expectancy = Effort  Performance

Instrumentality=PerformanceOutcomes

Valence = Importance of Outcomes
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Illustration of Expectancy Theory
EXPECTANCY 1
EXPECTANCY 2
(.5)
(1.0)
Stay on the
job and meet
work load
requirements
(.9)
(.3)
EFFORT
(1.0)
CONSEQUENCES
VALENCE
Skills Seen as
inadequate
1
Feel pride and
accomplishment
7
Recommended for
promotion
10
Skills seen as
complete
7
Fall behind at work;
feel overloaded,
depressed, etc.
1
(.6)
Successfully
Complete
seminar
(.6)
(1.0)
Chapter 3
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Some Training Implications of
Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning
Theory – Part 1 of 2
Issue
Cognitive Approach
Behavorist Approach
Learner’s role
Active, self-directed,
self-evaluating
Passive, dependent
Instructor’s role
Facilitator, coordinator,
and presenter
Director, monitor,
and evaluator
Training content
Problem or task oriented
Subject oriented
Learner motivation
More internally motivated
More externally
motivated
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Some Training Implications of
Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning
Theory – Part 2 of 2
Issue
Cognitive Approach
Behavorist Approach
Training climate
Relaxed, mutually trustful
and respectful,
collaborative
Formal, authority
oriented, judgmental
competitive
Instructional goals
Collaboratively developed
Developed by instructor
Instructional
activities
Interactive, group, project
oriented, experiential
Directive, individual
subject oriented
Chapter 3
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Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning
Types – Part 1 of 4
Learning Type
Description
1.Signal learning
Learning a general response to a specific signal.
Pavlov’s classical conditioning falls into this
category.
2.Stimulus–response
(S–R)
Learning a single response to a stimulus situation.
Basic forms of operant conditioning fall into this
category.
3.Shaping
Chaining together of two or more S–R
associations.
Originally termed chaining by Gagné, the text
calls it shaping to avoid confusion.
Chapter 3
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Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning
Types – Part 2 of 4
Learning Type
4. Verbal association
5. Multiple
discrimination
Description
A chain of two or more verbal associations.
Basically the same as shaping, but the
application to language makes this a
special case.
Making different but appropriate responses
to stimuli that differ to greater or lesser
degrees.
Chapter 3
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Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning
Types – Part 3 of 4
Learning Type
Description
6. Concept learning
Typically called generalization learning.
Learning to make a common response to a
group of stimuli having common
characteristics or relationships but otherwise
differing to greater or lesser degrees.
7. Principle learning
Learning to chain two or more concepts by
developing a formal, logical relation between
the concepts (e.g., “if A then B” formulation).
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Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning
Types – Part 4 of 4
Learning Type
8. Problem solving
Description
Learning to combine two or more previously
learned principles to produce a novel (to the
learner) capability reflecting a higher-order
principle.
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Classical Conditioning Process
STEP 1 Unconditional Stimulus
(Meat Powder)
Unconditioned Response
(Salivation)
STEP 2
Conditional Stimulus
paired with
Unconditioned Stimulus
(Buzzer followed closely in time,
over many trials, by meat powder)
STEP 3
Unconditioned Response
(Salivation)
Conditional Stimulus
(Buzzer alone)
Conditioned Response
(Salivation)
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Machinist’s Behavior Patterns before
and after Modification
Machinist’s Initial Behavior
Begin
work
Break
Work
Lunch
Work
Leave
Work
Clean
Work
Break
Machinist’s Modified Behavior
Begin
work
Clean
Break
Work
Clean
Lunch
Leave
work
Clean
Work
Break
Clean
Work
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Supervisor Behavior Patterns
Recommended for Two Levels of
Two Environmental Stimuli
Subordinate Need for Independence
Task Structure
High
Low
High
Low initiating structure
High participation
Low initiating structure
Low participation
Low
High initiating structure
High participation
High initiating structure
Low participation
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The Cognitive Processes Involved in
Social Learning
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Stimuli
Stimuli
Stimuli
Stimuli
A
T
T
E
N
T
I
O
N
Learner's Cognitive Processes
MOTIVATION
RETENTION
1. Symbolic Coding
2. Cognitive Organization
3. Symbolic Rehearsal
Behavioral
Consequences of
Behavior
Chapter 3
Reproduction
34
Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 1 of 2
Instructional Event
It gets the trainee to:
1. Gaining attention
Focus on trainer
2. Informing the trainee of Goal
(objective)
Begin focusing on the goal
3. Stimulating recall of prior
knowledge (learning)
Bring prior learning into working
memory
4. Presenting the material
Selectively perceive important
parts of training
5. Providing learning guidance
To consider how the training fits
into her overall schema, and
facilitate retrieval
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Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 2 of 2
Instructional Event
It gets the trainee to:
6. Eliciting the performance
Do it (practice)
7. Providing feedback
Perform effectively by reinforcing
correct responses and assisting
when incorrect
8. Assessing performance
Engage in a number of similar
activities to determine how well
she has mastered the learning
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
Engage in more complex and
varied examples of the
concept(s) and assess the
success
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Example of a Lesson in Problem
Solving – Part 1 of 5
Learning objective: Given a drawing of a plot of land, the student will
generate a plan for a sprinkler system that will cover at least 90% of the land,
using the least amount of materials (PVC pipe and sprinkler heads).
Event
Media
Prescription
1. Gaining
attention
Live
instruction
and
overhead
projector
Rapidly show pictures of sprinkler
coverage of a plot of land that has
highly successful (90%) and one of
unsuccessful (70%) coverage, and
one using too many sprinkler heads,
inviting attention to their differences.
2. Inform the
learner of
the objective
Same
The problem: Design the most efficient
sprinkler system covering at least
90% of the ground using the least
amount of pipe and sprinkler heads.
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Example of a Lesson in Problem
Solving – Part 2 of 5
Event
Media
Prescription
3. Stimulate recall
of requisites
Overhead
projector
Ask the learners recall applicable rules.
Since the sprinkler heads they will
use spray in circles and partial
circles, rules to be recalled are the
area of :(1) a circle, (2) quarter and
half circles, (3) rectanguls, and (4)
irregular shapes (intersection of
circular arcs with straight sides).
4. Presenting the
Same
stimulus material
Restate the problem in general terms,
and then add specific details:
1) rectangular lot 50 by 100 ft;
2) radius of the sprinklers, 5 ft;
3) water source in the center of the lot.
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Example of a Lesson in Problem
Solving – Part 3 of 5
Event
Media
Prescription
5. Providing learning Overhead The student will need to design
and guidance
projector
tentative sprinkler layouts, draw them
out, and calculate the relative
efficiency of each. Guidance may be
And
given by informing the learner of
options if rules are not being applied
6. Eliciting
correctly. For example, “Could you
performance
get more efficient coverage in the
corner by using a quarter-circle
sprinkler head?” Or “It looks like you
have a lot of overlap; are you allowing
for a 10% non-coverage?”.
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Example of a Lesson in Problem
Solving – Part 4 of 5
Event
Media
Prescription
7. Providing
feedback
Oral review
by instructor
Confirm good moves, when in a suitable
direction. If the learner doesn’t see a
possible solution, suggestions may be
made. For example, “Why don’t you
draw four circles that barely touch,
calculate the area, then draw a rectangle
around the circles and calculate the area
of coverage to see how much you have?”
8. Assessing
performance
Teacher
Present a different problem using the same
type of sprinkler, with different lot shape
and size. Check the efficiency of the
student’s solution in terms of coverage
and amount of materials used.
Chapter 3
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Example of a Lesson in Problem
Solving – Part 5 of 5
Event
Media
9. Enhancing
retention
and transfer
Worksheet
Prescription
Present several different problems
varying in shape of lot, position of the
water source, and area a of sprinkler
coverage. Assess the generalizability
of student problem solving to these
new situations
Chapter 3
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Exercise

In discussion groups of 4 – 6, identify
differences among you that would
impact the kind of training you would
prefer. Use Table 3-7 on p. 108, but
don’t limit it to only these
characteristics. What accounts for the
differences and similarities in your
group.
Chapter 3
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Table 3-7








Instrumentality, desire for immediate applicability of material
Skepticism, need for logic, evidence, and examples
Resistance to change, fear of unknown or personal
consequences of change related to feelings of self-efficacy and
locus of control
Attention span, amount of time before attentiveness is
substantially diminished
Expectation level, quality/quantity requirements of training
Dominant needs, intrinsic and extrinsic motivators
Absorption level, pace expected and can absorb the material
Topical interest, personal interest in the material
Chapter 3
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