Download Catholic College of Mandeville Course: Introduction to Psychology

Catholic College of Mandeville
Course: Introduction to Psychology ED 103
Individual Research Paper
a. Identify 10 contributors/founders to the origin of Psychology and give a brief
b. explanation to each theory
OR
c. Summarize Cognitive theory (My task to research)
After sharing findings with class, upload a 3 page summary to
Moodle for final grading and access to classmates
By
Sandra Whyte
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
Bachelors in Education
Facilitator Miss Carline Campbell
Due February 23, 2016
Over the years psychologists have suggested many theories to explain human behavior.
The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, to
become the dominant approach (i.e. perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s. The Merriam
Webster Online Dictionary defines cognitive as; ‘of relating to, being, or involving conscious
intellectual activity (as thinking , reasoning, or remembering) based on or capable of being
reduced to empirical factual knowledge’. Theories of human development have been posited by
some phenomenal psychologist like Sigmund Freud- Psychosexual, Erikson’s Psychological,
learning theories like are Piaget, Jung and Maslow just to name the major ones. They are of the
view that human nature can be personified in such theories as cognitive psychologist study
internal processes including perception; Cognition literally means knowing. In other words,
cognitive psychology refers to the study of human mental processes and their role in thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Bandura (1986) states that as knowledge gained through inquiry affect
human potentialities and that theories of development provide a framework for thinking about
human growth, development and learning.
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on
our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us
generates our own rules and mental models, which we use to make sense of our experiences.
Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new
experiences. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving. Constructivism calls for the
elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning
process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. There are two different types of conditioning,
each yielding a different behavioral pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex
responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate
when they eat or even see food. Secondly, behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a
response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system:
If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. Teachers, who reward or
punish student behaviours, often use behaviourism.
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is considered as the father of
psychologist and renowned for constructing a highly influential model of child development and
learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures–in other words, mental “maps,” schemes, or networked concepts for understanding
and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment. He identified four
developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them. The four
stages are: Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old the child builds a set of concepts about reality
and how it works through interaction. Preoperational stage (age 2-7)–The child is not yet able to
conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Concrete operations (age 7-11)
based on prior knowledge, the child starts creating logical structures that explain his or her
physical experiences. Formal operations (age 11-15) –By this point, the child’s cognitive
structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.
Piaget believes that during all development stages, the child experiences his or her
environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a
repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the child’s cognitive structure so that he or she
maintains mental equilibrium. If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium,
and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions.
Plato indicates to that Neuroscience is the study of the human nervous system, the brain,
and the biological basis of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning. The nervous system
and the brain are the physical foundation of the human learning process. The Neuroscience
believes that our brain actually contains three brains. The structure of the brain’s neuron
connections is loose, flexible, webbed, overlapping, and redundant.
Brain-based learning this learning theory is based on the structure and function of the
brain. As long as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its normal processes, learning will
occur. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes. We have two types of
memory: spatial and rote.
Learning Styles, this approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive
and process information in very different ways. The concept of learning styles is rooted in the
classification of psychological types. The learning styles theory is based on research
demonstrating that, as the result of heredity, upbringing, and current environmental demands,
different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently. The
different ways of doing so are generally classified as: Concrete and abstract perceivers; Concrete
perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling.
Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis, observation, and thinking.
Gardner defines intelligence as a group of abilities that: Is somewhat independent from
other human capacities. He identifies the following seven: Verbal-Linguistic–The ability to use
words and language, Logical-Mathematical the capacity for inductive and deductive thinking
and reasoning, Visual-Spatial–The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create
internal images and pictures, Body-Kinesthetic–The wisdom of the body and the ability to
control physical motion, Musical-Rhythmic–The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds,
as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats, Interpersonal–The capacity for person-to-person
communications and relationships, Intrapersonal–The spiritual, inner states of being, selfreflection, and awareness.
Observational Learning also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer’s
behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be affected
by the positive or negative consequences–called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious
punishment– of a model’s behavior. Bandura (1977) called the process of social learning
modelling and gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of
someone else. Observational learning allows for learning without any change in behaviour and
has therefore been used as an argument against strict behaviourism which argued that behaviour
change must occur for new behaviours to be acquired.
Vygotsky and Social Cognition, the social cognition-learning model asserts that culture is
the prime determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created
culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child’s learning
development is affected in ways large and small by the culture–including the culture of family
environment–in which he or she is caught. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child’s
intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content of their
thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the
processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation.
In short, according to the social cognition-learning model, culture teaches children both what to
think and how to think. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child
learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or
teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer.
In concluding Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to
the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture. "Language is the way we interact
and communicate, so, naturally, the means of communication and the conceptual background
that’s behind it, which is more important, are used to try to shape attitudes and opinions and
induce conformity and subordination. Not surprisingly, it was created in the more democratic
societies Chomsky (2003)”. As learning progresses, the child’s own language comes to serve as
her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to
direct their own behavior. A difference exists between what child can do on his/her own and
what the child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal
development.
References
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.
Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hardback: ISBN
0138167443 - Paperback: ISBN 0138167516
Chomsky, N. (2003) Collateral Language. TRANS, Internet journal for cultural sciences.
McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
McLeod, S. A. (2015). Cognitive Psychology. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html
Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Siegler, R. S., DeLoache, J. S., & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop. New
York: Worth
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
.
Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development:
Foundations of constructivism. Longman Publishing.