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Examining Our Social World
CHAPTER 2
Social Research
• Examines human behavior
• Is guided by rules and procedures
• Involves the objective gathering of
data
WHY IS SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
IMPORTANT IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES?
Oprah Winfrey has regularly
featured guests, such as
actress Suzanne Somers,
who dismiss scientific findings
about health and endorse
treatments such as taking up
to 60 vitamin pills every day
and wishing cancer away.
Bases of Knowledge
• Tradition—We’ve always
done it that way.
– Customs, rituals, and procedures
• Authority—An important source said so.
– Experts, parents, government, and religion
• Scientific Method—Careful data collection and
measurement, appropriate generalizations
– Carefully controlled studies
Application
What basis of knowledge is it?
– Sam believes it’s true because the Bible
said so.
– A good spanking always worked for my
kids.
– Nine out of 10 people who answered the
survey said they were in favor of the
change.
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Creates new knowledge
Exposes myths
Affects social policies
Sharpens critical thinking skills
Helps us make informed decisions
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Variable—a characteristics that can change in
value or magnitude under different conditions
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Examples: age, ethnicity, social class
Application
What are some variables that reflect each
of these categories?
– Attitudes
– Behaviors
– Traits
In a research study, scientists:
• Ask a question
– How does divorce affect children?
• Or test a hypothesis?
– The less education an individual
has, the more likely they are to use
corporal punishment with
their children.
Hypothesis
• Statement of a relationship between two
or more variables
• Statement that will be tested in the study
Variables in a Hypothesis
• Independent variable—determines or
has an effect
• Dependent variable—the outcome
Application
Identify the independent and
dependent variables.
• The more you study, the more you
know.
• Violence rates are higher among
cohabiting couples than among
married couples.
• Curfews reduce vandalism rates.
Research results should have:
• Reliability—consistency
– If we calculate a state’s divorce rate ten
times, will the answer always be the same?
• Validity—accuracy
– Does the divorce rate accurately reflect
relationship breakup?
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Deductive reasoning—moving from the
general to the specific
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Theory → Hypothesis → Observation →
Confirmation
Inductive reasoning—moving from the
specific to the general
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Observation → Pattern → Hypothesis → Theory
Sample
• The part of the population (well-defined
group of people or things) that is studied
• Probability sample—each person or
thing has an equal chance of being
selected; results can be generalized to
the larger population
• Nonprobability sample—researchers
rely on convenience or availability
The Research Process
1. Choose a topic
– Conflicts among students in a high school
2. Summarize the related research
– Read past studies about student conflict.
3. Formulate a hypothesis or ask a
research question
– Students who work together on a project will
be less likely to experience conflicts.
The Research Process (cont.)
4. Describe the data collection methods
– Set up a situation where some students
work with others.
5. Collect the data.
– Observe students before, during, and after
the “work together” situation.
6. Present the findings.
– Analyze the data and present the findings.
The Research Process (cont.)
7. Analyze and explain the results.
– Explain why the information is important and
how it can be generalized.
– Will it work in other schools?
Research is:
• Qualitative—nonnumeric description
– A researcher works in a meat-packing plant
and describes his experiences.
• Quantitative—numerical analysis
– Reported number of safety violations are
analyzed in relationship to
number of inspections.
Correlation and Causation
Sociologists usually talk about
correlation—the relationship between
variables—rather than causation.
Data Collection Methods
Section is based on:
– Benefits and limitations of the method
– Time and budget constraints
Surveys
• Questionnaires and interviews
• Advantages: inexpensive, easy to
administer, fast turn-around rate, ease in
acquiring sensitive information
• Disadvantages: low response rate,
possibility of inaccurate information
Secondary Analysis
• Examines data that have been collected
by someone else
• Includes historical materials, personal
documents, public records, and official
statistics
• Advantages: accessible, convenient,
inexpensive
• Disadvantages: may not have the needed
information
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Observing people in their natural
surroundings
Includes participant observation
Advantages: in-depth understanding,
flexible, does not disrupt the subjects
Disadvantages: sometimes expensive or
dangerous, little control over the data
Content Analysis
• Systematically examining some form of
communication
• Analyzing speeches, songs, diaries, emails
• Advantages: in-expensive, less-time
consuming; correct coding errors easily;
unobtrusive; permits comparisons over
time
• Disadvantages: can be labor intensive;
coding is subjective; may reflect social
ETHICS, POLITICS, AND
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
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Do no harm.
Get the subjects’ informed consent.
Protect subjects’ confidentiality.
Political Influences on Research
• Policy makers might ignore or suppress
research findings.
• Advocacy groups might ignore findings
that could reduce funding.
• Policy makers may refuse to fund
controversial subjects.