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AP WORLD
HISTORY
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Summer Assignment for
Advanced Placement World History
Advanced Placement World History has gained ground in the United States, most importantly, because of the
global context in which America now operates. It is vital to gain historical perspectives on a variety of
civilizations outside our own country, including not just Europe, but also Asia, Africa, the Middle East and
Latin America. Knowing the history of basic world processes – from disease transmission though trade and
migration to cultural contacts – is essential. In the past, Western civilization courses prepared some Americans
very well for a Europe-centered diplomatic and business experience. Now that we need more, AP World
History provides the essential curricular framework.
-- Dr. Peter Stearns
Dear future AP World Students,
Welcome to AP World History! We are so excited that you have chosen this course next year. Taking
an AP course is an incredibly challenging and rewarding task; we look forward to guiding you
through this process next year.
All students electing AP World must complete the following assignment over the summer. As you
read the assignment and answer the questions, you should notice that a lot of this information is a
review of ninth grade material. This is because the first two units on the AP World exam begin with
material you covered in ninth grade. We will review and expand upon this knowledge during the
first month of this course next year. Therefore, by completing this assignment you will get a head
start on the content we will be studying next year as well as practice the kind of independent work
required for the course. If this summer assignment is especially challenging or if you realize now that
completing at least 1 hour solid hour of homework per night as well as writing multiple high-level
essays per quarter is too much, please consider taking Global 10 Honors next year. You will have
many other opportunities take an AP course here at Rye.
Step 1: Read each section and answer the corresponding questions in complete sentences. Please type
your responses. You will submit your written responses to turnitin.com during the first week of
school. This website will check your responses for plagiarism, so please make sure you are using your
own words when writing your answers. Your answers to the questions are worth 50 points.
Step 2: Label the attached map with the appropriate terms. You may want to print out multiple copies of
the attached map in order to organize your work. Be prepared for a Geography Test during the first week
of school. This quiz will be worth 50 points.
If you have any questions over the summer, feel free to email us at [email protected] or
[email protected].
Sincerely,
Mrs. Sara T. Charles
Mr. Sean G. Moughty
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Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations
Few events in all of history can rival the significance of the rise of the first complex societies in
Mesopotamia. Although these early Mesopotamian societies relied on an agricultural foundation, they
also developed true cities and lived a thoroughly urban existence. Mesopotamia developed
sophisticated political, religious, and social structures that influenced their neighbors and have survived
the millennia since.
The Quest for Order
Mesopotamia, “the land between the rivers”— in this case the Tigris and Euphrates—was the
birthplace of the world’s first complex society. The Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia were first in a
series of early brilliant cultures in southwest Asia. The cultural and linguistic landscape was enriched
and complicated by Semitic migrations. The rapidly growing population of Mesopotamia in the fourth
millennium BCE required the establishment of political and social organizations. Without the benefit of
earlier examples the Mesopotamians built sophisticated political, social and military
structures that allowed them to survive and in fact extend their influence over surrounding
regions. Although they never achieved political unification, the Mesopotamian city-states
of Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, and Babylon dominated the land between the Tigris
and Euphrates for a thousand years. Warfare was common among the Mesopotamian
city-states, and occasionally one ruler would temporarily dominate his neighbors and
create short-lived empires. In the twenty-fourth century BCE Sargon of Akkad was the
first to unite all of Mesopotamia. A more impressive and long-lasting state would arise
during the time of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BCE) and the Babylonians. Hammurabi was a
powerful ruler, but he is mainly known for his sophisticated law code. Hammurabi’s code
was based on lex talionis, or the “law of retribution,” but it was also shaped by class and
gender distinctions. Eventually a new power, the Assyrians, rose to dominate
Mesopotamia and beyond. Babylon briefly reasserted its prominence in the sixth century
BCE under Nebuchadnezzar.
The Formation of a Complex Society and Sophisticated Cultural Traditions
The mastery of agriculture allowed for the development of economic specialization and the
expansion of trade. Technological advancements such as innovations in bronze (4000 BCE.) and iron
metallurgy (1300 BCE.) as well as the creation of wheeled vehicles (3000 BCE.), also played a role in
the expansion of the societies. The Mesopotamians actively pursued long-distance trade with
merchants in Arabia, Anatolia, Lebanon, Egypt, Afghanistan, and India. Another aspect of these
developing areas was the increasing distance between the haves and have-nots of society. Agriculture
made it possible for individuals to become wealthy. The gulf between rich and poor steadily increased,
with the kings and nobles positioning themselves at the top because of their status as warriors. A
powerful priestly class, acting as intermediaries between humans and the gods, also emerged. In
addition, there arose a large slave population, drawn mainly from prisoners of war, criminals and
indebted individuals. These societies were also highly patriarchal.
In many ways the evolution of writing formed the foundation of the cultural achievements of these
early societies. The Mesopotamians, through cuneiform, began to experiment with a written language
during the fourth millennium. The significance of a written language is clearly seen in Hammurabi’s law
code as well as in early work in mathematics and astronomy and the masterful literary and mythological
achievement of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The narrative tells the story of a legendary Sumerian king’s
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unsuccessful quest for immortality; a theme that recurs in ancient literature and later influenced the
Hebrews and Greeks. At the same time, because of the complexity of these systems, writing would for
the most part remain the province of the courtly scribes. The written records also give a glimpse at the
creation of organized religion in the region. As was the norm in the ancient world, the Mesopotamians
were polytheistic, with the gods mainly representing forces of nature. The pessimistic Mesopotamian
view of the gods and of people’s place in the universe represented the precarious existence of life
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
The Broader Influence of Mesopotamian Society
Seldom in history has a society been as influential as the Mesopotamians. Their relationship with
the Hebrews is a classic example. The Hebrew law code was clearly influenced by Hammurabi’s code.
At the same time, these later societies built their own unique cultural achievements. The staunch
monotheism of Moses was unlike anything that came from the Mesopotamians. Yahweh, the god of
the Hebrews, was both a powerful and a personal god. This view of god would later shape the
development of Christianity and Judaism. The Phoenicians, in addition to their role as maritime
explorers and merchants, invented alphabetic writing.
The Israelites and Monotheism
For more than two thousand years, Hebrews and Israelites interacted constantly with the
Mesopotamians and other ancient peoples with profound consequences. According to the Hebrew
Scriptures (found today in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible), the Hebrew patriarch Abraham
came from the Sumerian city of Ur, but migrated to Palestine about 1850 B.C.E.. Later the Hebrews
migrated from Palestine to Egypt and around 1300 B.C.E., this branch of the Hebrews departed under
the leadership of Moses and went back to Palestine. Organized into a loose federation of twelve tribes,
called the Israelites, they fought bitterly with other inhabitants of Palestine and carved out a territory for
themselves. Eventually the Israelites abandoned their inherited hierarchical structure in favor of a
Mesopotamian style monarchy that brought all twelve tribes together under unified rule. During the
reign of King David (1000 – 970 B.C.E.) and King Solomon (970 – 930 B.C.E.), Israelites dominated
the territory between Syria and the Sinai Peninsula and an elaborate and commercial capital at
Jerusalem. The crowning achievement of Solomon’s extensive building program was a great temple
dedicated to god, of which the Western Wall remains today as a pilgrimage site for Jews. The early
Hebrews recognized many of the animistic gods of the Mesopotamians.
Abraham and Moses, however, embraced monotheism: they thought there
was only one god named Yahweh, a personal god, who was a supremely
powerful deity, the creator and the sustainer of the world. Additionally, he
demanded that they observe high moral and ethical standards. In the Ten
Commandments, passed on to Moses, Yahweh warned his followers against
destructive and antisocial behavior. Between 1000 and 400 B.C.E., the
Israelites religious leaders compiled their teachings into a set of Holy
Scriptures called the Torah, which laid down Yahweh’s laws and outlined his
role in creating the world and guiding human affairs. The Torah taught that Yahweh would reward or
punish the whole communities according to its observance of his commandments.
The Indo-European Migrations
The Mesopotamians were also influenced by other societies, some from regions far beyond the
boundaries of the Tigris and Euphrates. The most important were tribes, speaking a variety of Indo4
European languages, who migrated into the region at various times during the second and third
millennium BCE. The Indo-Europeans, originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a
common linguistic foundation from India through Western Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old
Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi, and Farsi as well as most European languages were descendants of the
Indo-European language. These tribes had domesticated the horse by around 4000 BCE. The most
influential Indo-European migrants into the area around Mesopotamia were the Hittites, who settled in
central Anatolia around 2000 BCE. Their construction of light, horse-drawn chariots and their mastery
of advanced iron metallurgy made them formidable warriors. These innovations did not exist in a
vacuum, however, and other peoples quickly borrowed them. The Indo-Europeans eventually traveled
east to the Tarim Basin in western China, west to Greece, Italy, Germany, and France, and south into
Persia and India.
1. In what ways was the reign of Hammurabi the high point of Mesopotamian history? What was the
significance of his law code and ‘lex talionis’ in the ancient world?
2. What was the Epic of Gilgamesh?
3. Compare and contrast the religious beliefs of the Mesopotamians and Hebrews.
4. What was the significance of the Kingdom of Israel in the ancient world?
5. What contribution did the Indo-Europeans make in ancient history? What languages descend from
the Indo-European languages?
6. How did the development of metallurgy impact the ancient world?
Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations
It could be argued that no society in the ancient world possesses the mystique of Egypt. The
image of the pyramids is indelibly etched in our collective imagination. However, Egypt’s relation to its
African neighbors, most notably Nubia, is often overlooked. Both societies developed an agricultural
foundation and later large cities. Both areas developed sophisticated political, religious and social
structures. Eventually the Bantu migrations would transform most of Africa.
Early Agricultural Society in Africa
Twelve thousand years ago the area we now recognize as the
Sahara Desert was a grassy steppe region with agricultural potential. By
around 8000 B.C.E. early inhabitants of the Sudan stretch began to cultivate
sorghum and yams. Eventually a climatic change around 5000 B.C.E.
forced the inhabitants into the Nile valley. From this point it is really
impossible to separate the history of the Nile from that of the Egyptians and
Nubians. The Nile fostered trade and early unification. Around 4000 B.C.E.
small kingdoms developed in southern Egypt and Nubia. The Egyptians,
unlike their contemporaries the Mesopotamians, unified early under the
legendary king Menes and eventually created the political and cultural
grandeur of the Old (2660-2160 B.C.E.) and Middle (2040-1640 B.C.E.) Kingdoms. As far back as the
Old Kingdom Egypt traded, and sometimes fought, with Nubian kingdoms like Ta-Seti and Kush. The
Hyksos arrived at the end of the Middle Kingdom and introduced new concepts such as horse-drawn
chariots and bronze weapons. Egypt rose to the level of empire during the New Kingdom (1550-1070
B.C.E.). In the eighth century B.C.E. a revival of Kushite power saw King Kashta conquer and rule
Egypt for over a century. Eventually a new power, the Assyrians, pushed out the Kushites and brought
Egypt into their expanding empire.
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The Formation of Complex Societies and Sophisticated Cultural Traditions
Although the picture is less distinct in Nubia, we know that both societies developed true cities
and lived an urban existence. Social classes developed as the gulf between rich and poor steadily
increased. As with Mesopotamia, the kings and nobles claimed power and prestige because of their
status as warriors. A large slave population developed. Both Egyptian and Nubian societies were
highly patriarchal. However, some women, most notably Hatshepsut, became pharaohs in Egypt.
Nubia had many female rulers, both through direct rule and indirectly through serving as a regent
(kandake). The mastery of agriculture allowed for the development of economic specialization and the
expansion of trade. Innovations in bronze and iron metallurgy were key. Egyptians actively pursued
long-distance trade, ranging from Harappan India to the east African land of Punt.
The Egyptians, through hieroglyphics (Greek for “holy inscriptions”), began to experiment with
a written language during the fourth millennium. At the same time, because of the complexity of these
systems, writing would for the most part remain the province of the courtly scribes. Still, education
carried the potential for a profitable profession. The Kushites, from their capital at Meroe, copied the
Egyptian hieroglyphs and adapted them to create Meroitic writing. Unfortunately, this form of writing
cannot be read. Egyptian written records give us glimpse of their religious beliefs. With one brief
exception, the Egyptians were polytheistic with the gods mainly representing forces of nature. The
stable life of the Egyptians in the isolated Nile valley is expressed in their optimistic view of the gods.
Even mummification expressed the Egyptians’ desire to continue the pleasure of this life in the next.
Pharaoh Akhenaten introduced the revolutionary concept of monotheism with his worship of the god
Aten, but this belief was quickly squelched after his death. The lack of written records limits our
knowledge of the Nubian religious beliefs, although we get a glimpse at gods such as the lion-god
Apedemak and the creator god Sebiumeker. The Nubians, like their northern neighbors, worshipped
Amon and built pyramids, albeit small ones.
Bantu Migrations and Early Agricultural Societies of SubSaharan Africa
The Bantu, probably because of population pressures,
began to migrate out of an area near modern Nigeria and
Cameroon around 3000 B.C.E. A mastery of agriculture gave the
Bantu an advantage over their hunting and gathering rivals.
Agricultural surpluses, along with a mastery of the canoe,
obviously benefited the Bantu. During the middle of the first
millennium B.C.E. the Bantu mastered iron metallurgy and they
spread this skill throughout Africa by their migrations. In the same
way the Bantu spread the cultivation of grains and yams
throughout East and South Africa. The Bantus also spread their
belief in a single impersonal divine force that had created the
world and then stepped back from it. Around 500 C.E. , the
cultivation of bananas – which had made their way into Africa via
Indian Ocean trade – enabled the Bantus to expand into heavily
forested regions and to continue the migration process. All this
migrating led to an increase in the overall population in Africa – from 3.5 million in 400 BCE to 22
million in 1000 CE – and the spread of agriculture over much of Africa. Today there are over 500
distinct (though related) languages that can be traded back to the Bantu.
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1. Examine the creation of early methods of writing. How did this innovation influence the lives of the
peoples of the ancient world?
2. What were the similarities among the Egyptians and other neighboring societies like the Nubians or
Kushites?
3. What role did women play in early African societies like Egypt and Nubia?
4. How did the introduction of the banana impact the migration of the Bantus?
Early Societies in South Asia
India is a country with an extraordinarily brilliant, in some ways almost unmatched, cultural and
religious tradition. At the same time, the Indian political world, marred by fragmentation and invasion,
has been chaotic. India is also one of the oldest societies, with the unique Harappan civilization
stretching back to at least 2500 B.C.E. The arrival of the Indo-European Aryans around 1500 B.C.E.
brought profound political, religious and cultural change. Eventually the combination of native
Dravidian and Aryan concepts gave rise to a rich and varied intellectual world. Hinduism, the dominant
religion in India, is the best example of this evolving process.
Harappan Society
The Harappan society, centered around the cities of
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, extends back to around 3000 B.C.E.
While their written records cannot yet be read with any certainty, it is
assumed that they spoke a Dravidian language. These sites, in
relation to their size and layout, are the largest for their age and
unlike any other cities of the ancient world. Mohenjo-Daro
possessed a population of up to 40,000. Religiously their main
gods and goddesses were fertility deities, and there is evidence that
these figures and concepts survived in various forms in later
Hinduism. Population pressures and ecological degradation led to
their decline around 2000 B.C.E.
Technologically and economically speaking, Indus society had a lot going for it: they traded
pottery, tools, and decorative items; it obtained gold, silver, and copper from Persia; and it obtained
wool, leather, and olive oil from Mesopotamia. Metal tools of bronze and copper have been found, as
well as jewelry made precious stones. Cotton was cultivated in this area before 5000 B.C.E.
Additionally, large Indus cities have been uncovered in recent years. These walled cities, designed in a
grid pattern, featured broad streets, marketplaces, temples, assembly halls, baths, and uniform
housing. The wealthiest people even had private baths with showers and toilets that drained into city
sanitation systems.
The Indo-European Migration and Early Aryan India
The total collapse of the Harappan society coincided with the arrival into India of an IndoEuropean tribe, the Aryans (“noble people”). The Indo-Europeans, originally from the steppe region of
southern Russia, left a common linguistic foundation from India through Europe. Languages such as
Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi, Farsi and most European languages are descendants of
Indo-European. Aryans subdued the native Dravidians, but also fought amongst themselves.
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Eventually the Aryans, arguably the first people to domesticate horses, came to rely more on
agriculture than herding. They also began to establish more structured political institutions and built
regional kingdoms, but never came close to substantial political unification. Much of our information
about the Aryans comes from the collection of religious hymns known as the Vedas, especially the Rig
Veda. Eventually the Aryans established the caste system in India. The Aryans used the term varna,
meaning color, to refer to the different social classes, which leads scholars to assume that the first
distinctions may have been based on race. By around 1000 B.C.E. the four main castes were the
Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors and nobles), Vaishyas (artisans and merchants), and Sudras
(peasants and serfs). A few centuries later the untouchables were added. Eventually thousands of
sub-castes (jati), based mainly on occupation, would arise. The society would remain staunchly
patriarchal as expressed in the Lawbook of Manu and the practice of sati.
Religion in the Vedic Age
The religious views of the Aryans at the time of their entry into India are best expressed in the
Rig Veda. Indra, a violent and militaristic storm god, was the main god in the early days of the Aryans.
However, questions of ethical behavior were not completely ignored. Varuna watched over human
behavior and sent sinners to the House of Clay and rewarded the virtuous by admitting them into the
World of the Fathers. Nevertheless, the most important aspects of these early religious views centered
around the performance of rituals, many of them dealing with sacrifice.
Eventually some Aryans, both dissatisfied by the rituals and inspired by Dravidian notions such
as reincarnation, brought about a startling transformation of religious thought. The best indication of
this evolution of Aryan religion is the collection of writings known as the Upanishads. The emphasis
shifted away from the heroic adventures of Indra and towards an examination of the relationship
between every individual and Brahma, the universal soul. Concepts such as samsara, the
transmigration of the soul, and karma, the sum of good and bad deeds that would determine one’s
position in the next life, came to dominate Indian thought. As expressed in the Upanishads, the main
goal was to escape the pain and suffering of eternal rebirth and reach the state of moksha. Asceticism
and meditation were the two principal means of achieving this goal. Indian religious thinkers
emphasized that the material world was an illusion and stressed the virtues of self-control, mercy and
honesty. Pacifism and vegetarianism played a role in this life.
1. How do the political, religious, and social structures of Harappan society compare its counterparts
in Mesopotamia and Egypt?
2. What would be the advantages of disadvantages of a social system like the caste system?
3. Why was India so politically fragmented in ancient times?
4. How might this lack of political unity influence the course of Indian history in the future?
5. How did the arrival of the Aryans impact religion in India and the development of later Hindu
beliefs?
Early Society in East Asia
Human beings have inhabited East Asia since at least two hundred thousand years ago. The
domestication of rice began around 7000 B.C.E., and Neolithic societies such as the Yangshao rose in
the valley of the Yellow River by approximately 5000 B.C.E. Early dynasties such as the Xia, Shang,
and Zhou saw the rise of a distinctive and in many ways uniquely secular society. Politically, none of
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the early dynasties could achieve centralization until the Qin unification in 221 B.C.E. Despite
centuries of unstable political decentralization and at times outright warfare, the Chinese moved
inexorably toward the establishment of a remarkably sophisticated political and social structure. Works
such as the Zhou classics, and especially the Book of Songs, would remain foundations of Chinese
thought for centuries.
Political Organization in Early China
The first societies in China developed along the fertile banks of the
Yellow River, despite the fact that its long history of devastating flooding has
earned it the nickname “China’s Sorrow.” The Yangshao society, centered
around the Neolithic village at Banpo, provides the earliest complete
archaeological evidence. Around 2200 B.C.E. the first recognized dynasty in
Chinese history, the Xia, began in the Yellow River valley. Until the recent
discovery of sites such as Erlitou, however, this dynasty has been more legend than reality. Much
more is known about the Shang dynasty, which lasted from 1766 to 1122 B.C.E. At the heart of Shang
power was their monopolization of bronze metallurgy, which allowed for the rise of a powerful military
state.
With the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 B.C.E.) the main streams of Chinese civilization
come into much sharper focus. Many of the foundations of Chinese thought and society came into
existence during the Zhou period. One of the most important is the concept of the mandate of heaven,
which proposed that heavenly powers, although indistinct, granted emperors the power to govern.
Consequently, the emperors served as a connection between heaven and earth and had to therefore
maintain high standards of honor and justice as well as provide order. In practice this theory never
achieved more than decentralized authority during the Zhou period. Eventually the Zhou emperors lost
control to regional princes, best shown through the imperial failure to monopolize iron metallurgy, and
this loss of power resulted in a long period of political decline. As early as 771 B.C.E. the western half
of the empire collapsed, and the last two centuries are known as the “Period of the Warring States.”
Order would not be restored until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.
Society and Family in Ancient China
As early as the Xia dynasty the royal family rose to a prominent
social position. The largely decentralized political structure of the Shang and
Zhou periods allowed for the rise of a powerful aristocratic element.
Craftsmen and merchants, fueled by a long-distance trade that extended
back to the Xia period, held important positions in Chinese society. In this
society, like in the other early societies, the vast majority of the population
was made up of peasants and slaves. The extended family unit played a
crucial role in Chinese society, partly because of the profound influence of
the veneration of ancestors. This practice led to a strong sense of family
solidarity and eventually translated into a strong patriarchal system. Without
an organized religion or powerful priestly class, it fell to the patriarchal leader
to carry out the rites designed to honor the family’s ancestors.
Early Chinese Writing and Cultural Development
China, unlike most of the other ancient societies studied so far, created a very distinctive
secular cultural tradition. While recognizing the importance of heavenly support for the emperor, the
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early Chinese never developed these ideas into a firmly structured religious tradition. This attitude is
seen very clearly in Confucius’s admonition to revere the gods while also keeping a distance from
them. Writing, which goes back to at least the Shang period, played a very important role in the
formation of the Chinese cultural framework. Most of the early evidence of Chinese writing comes from
the hundreds of thousands of Shang oracle bones. Although they were designed as a means of
divination, the bones also provide valuable information about Chinese writing and thought.
Despite (or maybe because of) the political chaos of the Zhou dynasty, this period served as
the foundation for many of China’s cultural and literary traditions. Thinkers during this period tried to
find order in a seemingly anarchic world and produced important contributions such as the Zhou
classics. Collections such as the Book of Changes, the Book of History, and the Book of Rites would
remain seminal works for thousands of years. The most important of these Zhou classics is the Book
of Songs, which, despite stories of famous kings and heroes, also dealt with crucial social and political
issues that were near to the hearts of common people.
Ancient China and the Larger World
Although isolation caused by mountains, deserts, and seas stood in the way of the
establishment of long-lasting or stable long-distance trade, China nevertheless influenced its
neighbors. The nomadic tribes of the north and west, the early ancestors of the Turks and Mongols,
traded and sometimes warred with the Chinese. However, because of environmental differences the
nomadic tribes of the north and west did not imitate Chinese traditions as thoroughly as did the peoples
of southern China. Eventually peoples in the south, such as, the state of Chu, grew to be competitors
to the Zhou.
1. In what fundamental ways was the mandate of heaven different from other governmental
systems common throughout the ancient world? What could be the limitations of the mandate
of heaven?
2. What role did the Shang and Zhou dynasties play in ancient Chinese history?
Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania
Seldom in history have societies been as influenced by changing climatic conditions as
the early cultures of the Americas and Oceania. The lowering of water levels allowed for the
initial exploration and settlement of these areas, whereas the melting of the glaciers around
twenty thousand years ago worked to leave these societies isolated. The result was the rise of
totally unique and fascinating societies. It would be centuries before a downside to this
unmatched isolation—increased susceptibility to disease—would manifest itself with the
appearance of invaders.
Early Societies of Mesoamerica
The Olmecs were the first recognized society in Mesoamerica. Olmec civilization stretches as
far back as 1200 B.C.E. and featured important political and religious centers such as San Lorenzo, La
Venta, and Tres Zapotes. One of the greatest mysteries of the Olmecs is the Colossal Heads they
built, which are 6-feet high and weigh between 16 to 18 tons each. Colossal humanlike heads,
sculpted from basalt, remain their most characteristic creation. It is believed that they are carvings of
the leadership. Additionally, their invention of a calendar would later be copied by succeeding
Mesoamerican societies. There is no evidence of a complete system of writing, although scholars
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suspect that the Olmecs experimented with writing and used written symbols to store information.
Although the situation is still a mystery, it is believed that the Olmecs destroyed their own centers at
San Lorenzo and La Venta. By 400 B.C.E. the Olmecs were clearly in a state of decline.
Mesoamerican civilization reached its peak with the flowering of the Maya from 300 to 900 C.E.
Tikal, with a population of around forty thousand, was one of several important Mayan capitals in a
politically fragmented landscape. The Maya made important contributions in astronomy, which played
a pivotal role in their efforts to foretell the future. Their calendar was the most precise in the Americas
and was one of the most accurate and complex in the world. Math, based on a vigesimal system,
would prove to be a strong point for the Maya. Like the ancient Babylonians and the Hindu scholars of
India, the Maya invented the concept of zero. The Maya also developed the most sophisticated and
comprehensive writing system in the Americas. Tragically, many of the Mayan books were destroyed
by the later conquistadores. Fortunately the Mayan epic of creation and heroism, the Popol Vuh,
survived in an oral tradition. While probably related to constant warfare, overpopulation, and ecological
degradation, the collapse of the Maya after 900 C.E. still remains in many ways a mystery.
Along with the Maya, the other great Mesoamerican heir to the Olmecs were the people of the
massive city of Teotihuacan. At its peak, between 400 and 600 C.E., Teotihuacan had a population of
almost two hundred thousand people. Included in the city was the Pyramid of the Sun, the single
largest building in Mesoamerica and two-thirds the size of the great pyramid of Khufu in Egypt. It is
thought that these people developed a complete system of writing, but unfortunately only a few
examples remain in stone carvings to hint at the complexity and sophistication.
Early Societies of South America
By as early as 12,000 B.C.E. people had begun to migrate into South America and by 7000
B.C.E. they had made it all the way to the southern tip. Still, much of this early history remains
shrouded in mystery. For example, historians know that a new religion, the Chaύin cult, became very
popular in the years after 1000 B.C.E. However, the true nature of the Chaύin cult is still not
completely known. The Chaύin cult, with its emphasis on maize and fertility, does show the increasing
importance of agriculture in the lives of the early South American tribes.
The earliest South American state was the Mochica. Although these people had no system of
writing, which was typical for South America, the brilliant artwork of the Mochica tells us much about
their culture and society. Mochica pottery remains among the most expressive and sophisticated ever
created. Elaborate ceramic heads represent portraits of individuals’ heads as well as those of the gods
and demons. The artwork also speaks of the complexity of Mochica society, with representations of
people ranging from aristocrats to beggars.
Early Societies of Oceania
Australia and New Guinea were visited for the first time by humans as
early as forty thousand to fifty thousand years ago. Limited migration, mainly
because of low water levels, also stretched out as far as the Solomon Islands.
The aboriginal population of Australia remained hunters and gatherers while the
tribes of New Guinea developed agriculture. The chore of exploring and settling
Oceania fell to Austronesian-speaking tribes from Southeast Asia. This language
group is related to Malayan, Indonesian, Filipino, Polynesian, and the Malagasy
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language of Madagascar. By as early as 4000 B.C.E. these tribes began to sail out into the Pacific,
eventually reaching Vanuatu (2000 B.C.E.), Samoa (1000 B.C.E.), Hawai`i (first century B.C.E.) and
New Zealand (middle of the first millennium C.E.). These people developed maritime technology and
agricultural expertise. Some scholars believe that the settlement of the Pacific islands was accidentally
by sailors that have been set off course, while others believe it was a planned colonization. As the
migration spread, so did the cultivation of new crops like yams, taro, breadfruit, and bananas and the
introduction of domesticated animals such as dogs, pigs, and chickens. Polynesian islands developed
into hierarchical chiefdoms in which leadership was passed down to the eldest son ,and relatives
served as the local aristocracy. Conflict between groups, as well as population pressure, often led to
further migration to new areas. The Austronesians, arguably the most skilled and daring sailors in
history, established agricultural societies and left political, religious, and cultural influences.
1. What would have caused the societies of the Americas and Oceania to be so different from
other societies studied so far? What did they have in common?
2. What factors help explain the decline and collapse of Mesoamerican societies such as the
Olmecs and the Maya, and in Oceania?
3. Why was the decline of the Maya so mysterious in comparison?
4. How did the migration of the Austronesian-speaking peoples impact the spread of food
products in Oceania?
ACHAEMENID PERSIA!
Classical Persian society has its origins in the sixth century B.C.E. with the rise of the dynasty of the
Achaemenids (558–330 B.C.E.) under Cyrus the Great. Later rulers such as Cambyses, Darius, and
Xerxes would create the largest, most stable, and in many ways most tolerant empire of its age. The
Persian political, social, and religious influences would transcend the centuries.
The Rise and Fall of the Persian Empires
Two related Indo-European tribes, the Persians and Medes, migrated into Persia in the
centuries before 1000 B.C.E. Although these tribes originally had limited political organization, they
were great horsemen and militarily powerful. Expansion began under the Achaemenids during the
reign of Cyrus, known both for his brilliance at military strategy and his enlightened and tolerant view of
empire. Areas such as Media, Lydia, Bactria, and Babylonia fell to Cyrus. Later Cambyses would add
Egypt, and Darius, the greatest of all Persian kings, would extend the empire in the east into northern
India and in the west into Thrace and Macedonia. The Achaemenids used an efficient bureaucracy
and an elaborate spy network to maintain order. The empire reached its peak under Darius, who made
use of regularized tax levies, centralized coinage, and an elaborate law code. The Persian Royal Road
was the centerpiece of an expansive road system that allowed for easy communication.
The Achaemenid state began to decline under Xerxes, who displayed little of the toleration of
his predecessors such as Cyrus or Darius. The Persian Wars (500–479 B.C.E.) with Greece, while
hardly a devastating defeat for the huge Persian empire, marked an end to the period of expansion.
Alexander of Macedon’s invasion in 334 B.C.E. brought about the end of Achaemenid rule. Alexander
claimed the Persian kingship and hence a continuation of power. He paid his respects at the tomb of
Cyrus the Great, maintained Darius’ monocratic bureaucracy, and ultimately settled in Persia with a
Persian wife. But, his early death prevented any true lasting unification. The empire fell to pieces.
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Imperial Society and Economy
The demands of empire had forced the Achaemenids to leave behind the simple political and
social structures of their early nomadic past. To run an empire the size of the Persian state it was
necessary to create a class of educated bureaucrats, including tax collectors, record keepers, and
translators. A more sedentary agricultural existence helped lead to the rise of profound differences
between rich and poor. A complex society of both free citizens and slaves developed. The formation
of such a huge unified empire was a tremendous boost to trade. A rich trade network carried goods
through the Persian empires from India, Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, Phoenicia, Arabia, Greece,
Ethiopia, and Egypt.
Religions of Salvation in Classical Persian Society
In addition to items such as grain, textiles, spices, gold, and ivory, religious
concepts were also traded back and forth across the Persian empires. In their
early stages the Persians worshipped nature gods and performed ceremonies
similar to those of their Indo-European cousins in India, the Aryans. A profound
change occurred through the philosophies of the seventh-century thinker
Zarathustra. His philosophy was preserved by priests, known as magi, through the
Avestas and Gathas. Zarathustra saw the universe and the human soul as a
battleground between Ahura Mazda, who represented good and truth, and Angra
Mainyu, who stood for evil and deception. This philosophy emphasized the
significance of every individual’s choice because there would be a final judgment.
Zarathustra did not tell his followers to renounce the world, but instead viewed the world as a material
blessing from Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrianism eventually became the main religion of the Achaemenids
but mainly spread throughout the empire on its own merits. Although worship of Zoroastrianism
declined after the Arabo-Islamic invasion in the seventh century C.E., the main philosophies of
Zarathustra have outlasted the centuries to influence Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
1. The Persians copied many of their ruling techniques from the Assyrians. In what ways were
the Persians different from the Assyrians? What might explain the greater success of the
Persians?
2. Examine the rise of the Achaemenid empire. What role did Cyrus play in this process? What
role did Darius play in this process?
3. In what ways did Zoroastrianism influence Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?
4. The victory of Alexander of Macedon at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. helped to bring
about an end to the Achaemenid empire. In what ways did the Persian empire live on in
Alexander’s Hellenistic Empire?
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QIN CHINA
The four centuries from 221 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. brought
extensive political, social, and intellectual change to China.
Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism were philosophies that
grew out of the confusing final days of the Zhou dynasty and
that profoundly influenced this age. In 221 B.C.E. the emperor
Qin Shihuangdi brought unification to China for the first time.
Although the Qin empire lasted barely two decades, it
succeeded in laying the foundation for lasting political success
and later cultural brilliance under the Han dynasty.
In Search of Political and Social Order
The political chaos of the later Zhou period led many
Chinese thinkers to reconsider the basic questions of social and
political order. This intellectual foment provided the motivation
for a very rich philosophical age. The most permanently
influential of these thinkers was Kong Fuzi (Confucius), whose
practical philosophy is best expressed in the Analects.
Confucius believed that the proper balance and order in five key
human relationships would bring about social and political
harmony. He worked to create junzi, “superior individuals,” who
would possess the needed education and dedication to staff
governmental positions. Certain core values such as ren (benevolence), li (propriety), and xiao (filial
piety) were central to Confucius’s philosophy. It was difficult for later Chinese thinkers to ever escape
Confucius’s lengthy shadow. The most influential of these post-Confucian thinkers was Mencius. He
believed that human nature was essentially good and therefore called for a government based on
benevolence and humanity to bring out this goodness. Others, such as Xunzi, took a different
approach. Xunzi believed that humans were naturally selfish and called for a government ready to
impose harsh social discipline. Even though Mencius and Xunzi held opposing views of human nature
they still operated within the traditional Confucian framework.
This turbulent age inspired other philosophical schools as well. Laozi is accepted as the
traditional founder of Daoism. The Daoists criticized the social activism of the Confucians and instead
proposed a life of reflection and introspection. The Daoists, like other Chinese thinkers, discussed the
importance of living in accordance with the dao (way), although the definition often varied. In this
instance the Daoists discussed wuwei, which is a removal from the world. Instead of action, the
Daoists suggested inaction. The last influential Chinese school of thought is Legalism. Thinkers such
as Shang Yang and Han Feizi wrote persuasively on statecraft and suggested that the state’s
foundation were the armed forces and agriculture and that clear and strict laws with harsh punishment
were essential to control human nature.
The Unification of China
Although Legalism was undeniably harsh, it also proved essential for the unification of China.
The Qin from western China, inspired by Legalist philosophers such as Shang Yang and Han Feizi,
created a centralized imperial administration that allowed for the first unification of China. Qin
Shihuangdi, the “First Emperor,” united China in 221 B.C.E. by crushing local autonomy and
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centralizing authority. He standardized laws, currencies, weights, and measures and built an extensive
network of roads that unified the country. Arguably his most important achievement in standardization
related to the establishment of one Chinese script. Even the splendor of his magnificent tomb has
transcended the centuries. His harsh rule, including the burning of books, execution of scholars, and
drafting of millions for huge public works projects such as the precursor to the Great Wall of China,
inspired resistance and the Qin state collapsed quickly.
1. One of the famous quotes from the Analects of Confucius is “When a prince’s personal
conduct is correct, his government is effective without the issuing of orders. If his personal
conduct is not correct, he may issue orders, but they will not be followed.” How is this quote
representative of all of Confucian thought?
2. In the Daodejing Laozi stated, “There is nothing in the world more soft and weak than water,
yet for attacking things that are hard and strong there is nothing that surpasses it.” How is this
statement representative of Daoist thought?
3. Han Feizi stated, “People become naturally spoiled by love, but are submissive to
authority…That being so, rewards should be rich and certain so that the people will be
attracted to them; punishments should be severe and definite so that the people will fear them;
and laws should be uniform and steadfast so that the people will be familiar with them.” How is
this statement representative of Legalist thought?
4. Examine the map of China during the Period of Warring States. How was Qin Shihuangdi able
to expand his holdings beyond Qin territory and unify this entire realm? How successful were
his methods in the long run? Explain.
5. Ultimately, the foundations for the Great Wall of China were built along the Northern border of
China. Why do you think they were they constructed in the north? Were there other reasons
for constructing the walls other than purely defensive ones?
MAURYA AND GUPTA INDIA
Beginning around 500 B.C.E. India
developed a classical society with political, religious,
and social features that would continue to influence
the subcontinent for centuries. The creation of two
new religions, Buddhism and Jainism, and the
continuing evolution of a third, the older Hinduism,
left India with an astonishingly complex religious
landscape. The caste system ensured a welldefined social structure, but even in this area
developments in trade and industry threatened the
traditional hierarchy. India unified for the first time,
but centralized government proved fleeting and the Indians were unable to leave a political legacy to
match the religious one. Nevertheless, the Mauryans, under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka
Maurya, and the Guptas, under Chandra Gupta II, created powerful and influential states. Works such
as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita were representative of one of the great
cultural flowerings in world history.
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The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India
Even under the Aryans India had never moved toward unification and remained a series of
small kingdoms. Profound changes began around 520 B.C.E. when the arrival of Darius the
Achaemenid brought increasing Persian trade and the introduction of new techniques of administration.
Alexander of Macedon’s invasion in 327 B.C.E. brought chaos and created a political vacuum. The
void would be filled by Chandragupta Maurya and the founding of the Mauryan dynasty in 321 B.C.E.
Chandragupta Maurya’s harsh centralizing philosophy, as expressed in the Arthashastra, ensured that
India would be united for the first time. This work, written by an advisor named Kautayla, discussed the
nature of power and government. Kautayla advocated for a strong centralized government that readily
employed spies to maintain order and loyalty. The Arthashastra’s view that any two states that share a
common border are destined to fight (consequently it is better just to go ahead and attack) may seem
harsh, but it mirrored the political chaos of the age. The ancient Indians recognized three types of war:
(1) the war of righteous duty, (2) the war for conquest, and (3) the war for destruction. The
Mahabharata and Ramayana recognized only the first type as being valid, whereas the Arthashastra
essentially accepted all three. The Mauryans would reach their peak under Ashoka Maurya, who
completed the process of unification with the bloody conquest of the Kalingans. Ashoka Maurya built
roads, promoted agriculture, collected taxes efficiently, and created a well-run bureaucracy in
Pataliputra. However, he is best remembered for his conversion to Buddhism and his efforts to make it
a world religion. The Mauryans collapsed fairly quickly after the death of Ashoka, and India would not
be reunified until almost five hundred years later. Rulers such as Chandra Gupta II witnessed a brilliant
cultural age, but overall the Guptas never approached the level of centralized authority reached by the
Mauryans. The Gupta left local government and administration in the hands of their allies in the
various regions of their empire. Invaders such as the White Huns helped to bring an end to Gupta
power beginning in the fifth century C.E., and India would not be reunited for another thousand years.
Economic Development and Social Distinctions
The growth of trade and manufacturing encouraged the rise of towns. Increasing long-distance
trade between India and the larger imperial states in China, Persia, and southwest Asia led to greater
economic but also cultural integration. Economic transformation did not change everything
immediately. For example, India remained strongly patriarchal, and works such as the Mahabharata
and Ramayana portrayed women as weak-willed. Child marriages became increasingly common. In
other areas, however, economic pressures were bringing an evolution of society. Guilds essentially
served as subcastes (jati) and played a role in shaping the social order. Some vaishyas and shudras
grew wealthy enough through trade or industry to challenge the brahmans and kshatriyas, the
traditional leaders of society.
Religions of Salvation in Classical India
This economic transition had tremendous religious implications because some thinkers began
to question the authority of the brahmins and the validity of traditional religious beliefs. For example,
the Charvada sect believed that all gods were figments of the imagination and that the brahmins were
charlatans. Other thinkers would take a more spiritual approach, but still come up with answers that
shook the foundations of traditional Hindu thought and in some cases created new religions. The
Jains, inspired by Vardhamana Mahavira, believed that everything in the universe possessed a soul
and therefore practiced ahimsa (nonviolence to other living things). While their lifestyle was too strict to
attract a mass following, they provided a definite challenge to Hinduism by refusing to recognize social
distinctions based on caste. A much more popular religion would be the Buddhism of Siddharta
Gautama. The Buddha preached the Four Noble Truths: (1) life is pain, (2) this pain is caused by
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desire, (3) eliminating desire eliminated suffering, and (4) and following the Eightfold Path eliminated
desire. The Eightfold Path called for leading a balanced and moderate life and avoiding extremes.
Passionless Nirvana was the final goal. From this simple beginning Buddhism would eventually grow
more complex and a split would develop between the Mahayana (“greater vehicle”) and Hinayana
(“lesser vehicle”) schools. Hinayana, or Theravada Buddhism, was the earlier and stricter form of
Buddhism which focused on asceticism and meditation. A later development, Mahayana Buddhism
claimed to bring more people to salvation and spread rapidly throughout Asia probably because of its
acceptance of a visual depiction of the Buddha, monasteries that could educate local people and its
promotion of Boddhisatvas, individuals who had reached nirvana but were delaying their entrance in
order to help those who were still spiritually struggling. Although Hinduism predated Buddhism and
Jainism, it too went through a period of transition during these years. The traditional power of the
brahmins was challenged by the evolution of concepts that appealed to a much wider audience. For
example, in the Upanishads (the first Hindu teachings) brahmins taught that the only means to
salvation was detachment and renunciation from the world. Later Hindu works such as the
Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita taught that detachment was important but so too
were values such as dharma (obedience to moral/caste laws), artha (pursuit of prosperity), and kama
(social, physical, sexual pleasure). Therefore, Hinduism gradually displaced Buddhism as the most
popular religion in India, but Buddhism spread far throughout Asia.
1. Compare the unification of India with the unification process in southwest Asia under the Assyrians
and Persians.
2. How were Chandragupta Mauryan, Asoka Mauryan, and Chandra Gupta similar and different as
rulers of India?
3. Ultimately Buddhist monasteries began to accept gifts from individuals and to regard these gifts as
acts of generosity. Thus wealthy individuals could enjoy the comforts of the world, avoid the
sacrifices demanded by Theravadic teachings, and still ensure salvation. This seems to me to be
very similar to Roman Catholicism. How so? What other aspects of Mahayana Buddhism might
compare to Roman Catholic practices?
4. Examine the transformation of Hindu thought during this period. What factors help to explain this
change? Why did Hinduism ultimately become India’s most popular religion and not Buddhism?
CLASSICAL GREECE
Arguably no society has cast a longer shadow over the Mediterranean, European, and
American worlds than that of the ancient Greeks. The influences of Greek democracy, tragedy, and
philosophy have transcended the centuries and continue to shape minds today. At the core of the
Greek mind was an inquiring spirit and refusal to accept anything less than the truth. After escaping
near disaster in the Persian War, the Greeks went on to create one of the world’s most glorious cultural
epochs. In the end, unfortunately, the Greeks’ own arrogance and warlike manner led to their
destruction in the Peloponnesian War. The conquests of Alexander of Macedon led to the creation of
the Hellenistic age and a perpetuation of Greek brilliance.
Early Development of Greek Society
The early Mycenaeans were influenced by the extraordinary Minoan society centered around
the city of Knossos on Crete. For example, the earliest Greek writing style, Linear B, was adopted from
the Minoan Linear A. Egyptian and Phoenician concepts, such as ship-building and agricultural
techniques, also reached the Mycenaeans indirectly through their contact with the Minoans. The
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Mycenaeans were incredibly warlike and spent much of their time fighting among themselves as well
as launching campaigns against the Minoans in Crete and the Trojans in Anatolia. Considering their
contentious nature, it is not surprising that the Mycenaeans never unified and instead settled into an
uneasy alliance of city-states. The city-state, or polis, would remain the foundation for the Greek
political world throughout their history. Of the many poleis the two most important were Sparta and
Athens. The Spartans, because of the fear of an uprising by the helots, reworked their society to
remove all social distinctions and eventually became the greatest soldiers of the Greek world. The
Athenians, while exhibiting little of the characteristic calm of the Spartan character, gave the world gifts
such as democracy and tragedy. Athens would reach its peak during the fifth century B.C.E. under the
leadership of Pericles. This golden age was funded in large part by revenues Athens kept from the
Delian League -- a military alliance in which Athens supplied military protection from the Persians in
return for financial support from the other poleis.
Greece and the Larger World
The inquiring spirit that so marked Greek philosophical thought also carried over into
exploration. Greek mariners explored widely and set up extensive colonies that would have, if the
Greeks had been able to unify, turned the Mediterranean into a “Greek lake.” In addition to playing a
key role in trade, these explorations also helped to spread the Greek language and cultural traditions
around the Mediterranean. Expansion also brought the Greeks into conflict with the Persian empire.
The Persian War, while serving mainly as an annoyance to the Persians, turned out to be the turning
point in Greek history. Unfortunately, the Greek inability to unify eventually led to a bloody civil conflict,
the Peloponnesian War, which brought an end to the Golden Age of Greece. The Greeks were so
weakened that they easily fell to the Macedonian leader Philip II. Eventually, however, the conquests
of Philip’s son Alexander laid the groundwork for the Hellenistic age by spreading Greek culture from
Egypt to India. Alexandria in Egypt would serve as the center for this new age. Politically, Alexander
would not be so fortunate, and his empire split up among the Antigonids, Ptolemaics, and Seleucids.
The Fruits of Trade: Greek Economy and Society
Trade, in addition to making the Greeks wealthy, also fostered a sense of unity among the
different poleis. Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympic games achieved the same goal. Greek
society, despite the occasional efforts of writers such as Sappho, remained strictly patriarchal. Sparta
provided women the greatest opportunity for freedom in the Greek world. As in the rest of the ancient
world, slavery in Greece played an important economic role.
The Cultural Life of Classical Greece
While building on Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and
Phoenician traditions, the Greeks branched off to leave
a unique and lasting cultural legacy. Architecturally, the
Greeks were influenced by the concepts of order and
balance and built many structures which exemplified
these values such as the Parthenon. Philosophically, the
Greeks attempted to construct a system based on
pursuing the truth at all costs through human reason.
Socrates’ proposal that “The unexamined life is not
worth living” perfectly represents the Greek quest for
truth. Plato turned inward to the World of Forms for
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intellectual perfection. While writing on fields as varied as biology, astronomy, psychology, politics, and
ethics, Aristotle created a worldview so comprehensive that he became known as “the master of those
who know.” Playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides examined the parameters of
human nature. Later Hellenistic philosophical schools also examined the role of the individual in
relation to society.
1. Examine the influence of the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Minoans on the early Greeks. What
Greek characteristics express these influences? In what ways were the Greeks different than
these other societies?
2. What were the most important city-states of Ancient Greece? How were these city-states
similar and/or different? Why didn’t the Greeks ever unify during Classical times?
3. Discuss the cultural and architectural splendor of Athens as represented in the picture of the
Parthenon. Remember that some of these buildings were built with money from the Delian
League. What might this fact say about Athenian arrogance?
4. Why might Alexander the Great be thankful for Spartan actions at the battle of Thermopylae
and in the Peloponnesian war?
5. Compare and contrast the way in which local and national identities were shaped and formed
in India and Greece.
HAN CHINA
A centralized state in China did not
disappear with the collapse Qin dynasty. The
Han dynasty, started by Liu Bang in 206 B.C.E.,
copied many of the Qin governmental
techniques but replaced the Qin use of Legalist
terror with a more traditional Confucian
approach. The Han dynasty would reach its
peak under the “Martial Emperor,” Han Wudi
(141–87 B.C.E.).
Wudi: Han Power-Chinese Unity
Han Wudi unified the Chinese and
increased Han power in three main ways. First,
he mounted a period of incredible territorial expansion. In the year 139 B.C., Han Wudi sent an envoy
named Zhang Qian on a mission from Chang’an to lands west of China. Han Wudi wanted this envoy
to find allies who could help combat the nomadic Xiongnu tribe that menaced that Northern and
Western borders of China. Like the Mongols, the Xiongnu were fierce nomads whose horsemanship
and easy mobility made them fierce warriors. After Zhang Qian entered Xiongnu territory, he was
captured and taken prisoner for 11 years. Remarkably, Zhang Qian escaped and ultimately made his
way back to Chang’an. What was most interesting, however, was what Zhang Qian saw as he traveled
home – things had changed in while he was held captive. Zhang Qian noticed Chinese goods - silk,
bamboo, and tea - for sale in markets in Xiongnu territory which were far beyond the current borders of
Han China. Upon inquiry he learned that these Chinese products had come to Xiongnu territory not
from China, but from Eastern India. From this information, Zhang Qian realized that the Chinese could
trade in Xiongnu territory and perhaps even in Persia by a more direct route. When Zhang Qian, finally
made it home to Chang’an, Han Wudi responded enthusiastically and dreamed of trading with the
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peoples inhabiting lands west of China. The Chinese policy of isolation would end for good. From 102
to 98 B.C., Han Wudi mounted a massive campaign to defeat the Xiongnu who he now claimed were
threatening the safety and security of the entire Chinese Empire. Han Wudi went on to defeat the
Xiongnu tribe and establish control over this new section of China.
This victory opened the door for the second way Han Wudi unified the Chinese and increased
Han power – increased trade. Wudi built roads and promoted the Chinese monopoly on sericulture.
This ushered in the “Silk Roads” era and made for a period of general economic prosperity. The most
prosperous and important of the trade routes were the silk roads that linked Eurasia and northern
Africa. From the eastern terminus at the Han capital of Chang’an the trade routes ran to the
Mediterranean ports of Antioch and Tyre. Sea routes connected Guangzhou in southern China with
Southeast Asia, Ceylon, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. Silk, fine spices, cotton
textiles, pearls, ivory, horses, jade, and manufactured goods were actively traded from one end of the
silk roads to the other. Although a few merchants occasionally traveled the entire distance, the trade
was usually carried out in stages. All of this trade and profit furthered solidified unity and Han power in
China.
Finally, Han Wudi established a monocratic bureaucracy to govern his empire which was
rooted in Confucian education. Wudi opened the imperial university that was designed to prepare
young men for government service who would qualify as junzi and instituted a civil service examination
– a way in which “any” educated man could join the bureaucracy (only wealthy sons could afford the
education required to sit for the exam). The Confucian scholars that this system generated poured into
the government and formed one of the foundations of Chinese political greatness for centuries. It also
led to the spread of Confucianism which ordered Chinese society around 5 key relationships
(conveniently with the ruler at the top). This solidified a type of identity in China which is rooted in the
values of ren (respect), li (propriety), and xiao (filial piety) and which is still influential today.
From Economic Prosperity to Social Disorder
Trade, fueled by iron metallurgy and silk manufacture, made for a period of general economic
prosperity. However, a rapidly expanding population and a widening gap between rich and poor led to
tremendous social disruption. The usurpation and reforms of Wang Mang (9–23 C.E) are emblematic
of the societal pressures. Known as the “socialist Emperor,” Wang Mang claimed the Mandate of
Heaven (the current Han Emperor was 2 years old) and began a drastic plan of land redistribution from
rich to poor. Nobles rejected this challenge to their holdings and even peasants objected to the lack of
organization of these plans. After several years of chaos, coupled with poor harvests, floods, and
famines, Wang Mang’s life and dynasty was ended.
The Later Han dynasty collapsed in 220 C.E. and centuries would pass before true unification
was reestablished. Uprisings such as the Yellow Turban rebellion painfully expressed the suffering of
the peasants but only caused more social unrest. Traditional centers such as Chang’an and Luoyang
were devastated. Nevertheless, important changes were shaping the Chinese social and cultural
landscape. Nomadic tribes increasingly fell under Chinese influence and became more sinicized.
Traditional Confucianism, in the face of political chaos, lost some of its vigor, and the Chinese
increasingly turned to Daoism and Buddhism for hope in a desperate age.
1. Examine the reign of Han Wudi. What challenges did he face and how did he overcome them?
How has he influenced Chinese history?
2. Discuss the political and social reforms of Wang Mang. What led to the need for these
reforms? How successful were they?
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3. Examine the map of China under the Han dynasty. How was the Han state different than the
Qin? Discuss the threat posed by the Xiongnu vs. the threats posed during the Period of
Warring States.
4. Discuss the difference in ruling philosophy between Qin Shihuangdi and the later Han.
Compare this relationship to that of Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka in India as well as to the
Assyrians and Persians. Why do the initial unifiers always seem to follow a philosophy that is,
by a Chinese perspective, Legalistic?
5. Explain why a Chinese person living at the end of the Han dynasty could define himself as both
an adherent of the Buddhist faith and of Confucian philosophy? Why are these two belief
systems able to work in tandem?
CLASSICAL ROME
For an incredibly long period of time the Romans were able to unite the Mediterranean world to an
extent unmatched in history. By the first century C.E. the Romans had extended their control over the
entire Mediterranean basin, including parts of southwest Asia, north Africa, continental Europe, and
Britain. Through the combination of a centralized authority and a normally tolerant regime, the Romans
were able to foster close connections between the different ethnic and religious groups of this
cosmopolitan empire. Roman control also allowed for a rich cultural and religious interchange. The
rise of Christianity to a world religion is closely connected to the Roman empire.
The history of Rome stretches back to around 2000 B.C.E. and the arrival of Indo-European
tribes into Italy. While scholars have serious doubts about the epic legends of Aeneas and Romulus,
they do acknowledge the influence of the Etruscans on the early Romans. The Etruscans, who
sometimes served as kings, dominated Rome until driven out by Roman nobles in 509 B.C.E. The
Romans established a republican constitution with power in the hands of two consuls chosen by the
patricians, or wealthy classes. Later, because of social tensions, the plebeians, or common people,
won the right to choose tribunes and then even consuls from their own ranks. From these rather
humble origins the Romans began to expand in the fourth and especially the second century B.C.E.
While the Romans may have expanded militarily, they also treated the peoples of their conquered
regions in an unusually generous and tolerant fashion that inspired loyalty. Most conquered peoples
were asked to pay some form of tribute (military or economic) and recognize Roman hegemony. In
return, conquered peoples were allows to govern their internal affairs, trade in Rome, and sometimes
even gain citizenship. As the Romans expanded into the Mediterranean they came into conflict with the
Carthaginian empire in northern Africa. A victory in the bloody Punic Wars left the Romans the masters
of the western Mediterranean. The eastern Mediterranean fell to the Romans after successful wars
with the Antigonid, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic empires.
From Republic to Empire
While the conquest of the Mediterranean
world may have brought immense wealth into
Rome, it also increased tensions caused by the
unequal distribution of that wealth. Wealthy
patricians turned captured land into latifundia and
dominated smaller landowners. The attempts of
the Gracchi brothers to bring about land reform
and use state subsidies to help the poor only led
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to their assassinations. The wars of Marius and Sulla were vivid proof of the societal tensions tearing
the Roman state apart. Even Julius Caesar, too often recognized only for his military conquests and
political aspirations, attempted to extend Roman citizenship and create jobs for the urban poor through
huge building projects. Julius’s victory in 46 B.C.E. after a civil war created order but also essentially
ended the republic. His own assassination in 44 B.C.E. threw Rome into another round of civil strife
until order was restored by his nephew Octavian.
When Octavian received the title Augustus in 27 B.C.E. the empire was born. While keeping
the remnants of the old constitutional framework, all power actually belonged to the emperor. The pax
romana, or Roman peace, an almost unprecedented period of economic expansion, cultural brilliance,
and political stability lasting over two and a half centuries, began with Augustus. Romans built roads,
acqueducts, baths, and temples all throughout their empire. Roman law, based on principles such as
the presumed innocence of the accused until proven guilty, brought stability to the empire as well as
influenced centuries of legal thought.
Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean
Like other empires, the Roman empire built roads that facilitated trade and cultural
transmission. Roman control over the Mediterranean was so complete that they simply referred to it as
mare nostrum, or “our sea.” The roads and sea lanes, along with the stability of the pax romana,
inspired economic specialization and integration. Trade promoted the rise of cities, but no city grew as
large or powerful or splendid as Rome itself. Romans enjoyed fresh water from aqueducts, a
sophisticated sewage and plumbing network, and spectacular public events in the Circus Maximus and
Colosseum. In regard to family structure, the Romans were strongly patriarchal but women did have
many rights both inside and outside the home. Slaves constituted up to one-third of the empire’s
population.
The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean
The Romans were greatly influenced by Greek culture. This influence is clearly seen in early
Roman religion, where gods like Jupiter and Mars mirror their Greek counterparts Zeus and Ares.
Hellenistic philosophy also impressed the Romans. The writings of Cicero show the influences of
Stoicism (Stoics believed that all humans were part of one family and that you could only find peace by
aiding others). As the empire became more cosmopolitan, other religious concepts—such as
Mithraism, Judaism, and Christianity—began to spread and became more influential. The rise of
Christianity especially is almost impossible to separate from later Roman history. The successes of
Jesus of Nazareth and Paul of Tarsus are intricately tied to Roman unification.
From Economic Prosperity to Social Disorder
The decline and fall of the Roman empire is obviously one of the most popular topics for
historians. Despite many theories designed to explain this collapse, the reality is that a complex
combination of factors brought an end to Roman power. Internal dissension, best represented by the
twenty-six “barracks emperors,” tore Rome apart. Diocletian’s decision to split the empire in half
speaks to the fact that Rome had grown so huge as to be almost unmanageable. Although
Constantine tried to reunify Rome, his choice of Constantinople as the new capital shows that the
western half of the empire was in serious decline. Germanic invasions by tribes such as the Visigoths
placed pressures on the decaying Roman state that were only increased by the appearance of Attila
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the Hun. Finally, in 476 C.E., the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the
Germanic general Odovacar. Arguably the most important cultural change during this period was the
rise to prominence of Christianity. By 380 C.E. the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official
religion of Rome. The hope for salvation made Christianity popular among the masses while St.
Augustine’s efforts to harmonize the new religion with Platonic thought appealed to the educated
classes. Eventually Rome, with the Pope at its head, became the center of the Christian world.
1. Why did the Romans create such a huge empire and last so many centuries when the Greeks
were never able to unify?
2. Why do the reigns of Julius and Augustus Caesar serve as key turning points in the history of
Rome?
3. The Chinese had a monopoly on sericulture – which was arguably their most important
technological achievement. Which technological achievement was the most significant for the
Romans? Why?
4. Compare and contrast the Roman and Han empires. What is similar and different about these
two empires?
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Map Assignment
Directions: Label the blank map with the features listed below in the color indicated in parenthesis. You will
have a map test on the following items during the first week of school. You may want to print out multiple
copies of the attached map in order to organize your work.
Continents (Red)
North America
South America
Australia
Europe
Antarctica
Asia
Africa
Oceans and Seas (Blue)
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
North Sea
Baltic Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Black Sea
Red Sea
Persian Gulf
Arabian Sea
South China Sea
Gulf of Mexico
Rivers (Green)
Nile River
Amazon River
Niger River
Rio Grande
Indus River
Ganges River
Yangtze River
Huang He River
Tigris River
Euphrates River
Congo River
Miscellaneous (Brown)
Andes Mountains
Hindu-Kush Mountains
Himalaya Mountains
Sahara Desert
Gobi Desert
Mongolian Steppe
Deccan Plateau
Suez Canal
Countries - Please locate and label the following countries on the map (Black):
Egypt
Iraq
Russia
Ethiopia
Israel
Haiti
Ghana
Saudi Arabia
Dominican Republic
Kenya
Turkey
Cuba
Morocco
China
Mexico
Algeria
India
Guatemala
South Africa
Japan
Argentina
Mali
Vietnam
Brazil
Ghana
South / North Korea
Chile
Sudan
Philippines
Peru
Madagascar
Indonesia
Venezuela
Iran
Mongolia
Belgium
England
Germany
Greece
Italy
Spain
France
Pakistan
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Cities – Please locate and label the following cities on the map with a star and the name of the city (Purple)
Beijing
Calcutta
Delhi
Mumbai
Mecca
Istanbul
Jerusalem
Damascus
Baghdad
Moscow
Mexico City
Santo Domingo
Vatican City
Berlin
Paris
London
Venice
Tokyo
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