Download Possible Response: Ritual Worship and Hindu Mysticism

Possible Response: Ritual Worship and Hindu Mysticism
The Vedas are oral, religious texts, which were composed in Sanskrit by people who called
themselves Arya (meaning ‘noble ones’), who are believed to have first migrated to the Indian
subcontinent from most probably the Russian steppes around 1,500 BCE. Prior to the arrival of
the Aryans, an extensive civilization, which is usually called the Indus Valley or Harappan
civilization, had flourished in the northern part of the subcontinent from between around 2,500
and 1,500 BCE.
The Vedas were composed between 1,500 and 900 BCE and are the most sacred texts of the
Hindus. ‘Veda’ means ‘knowledge’. These texts have been recited (and in parts chanted) at
Vedic rituals in a continuous tradition that has endured at least 3,500 years. The Vedas are
referred to as sruti, meaning ‘heard’, and were revealed to a class of seers known as rishis.
There were originally three Vedas, the oldest and most important being the Rig Veda, followed
by the Sama and Yajur Veda; the Atharva Veda, which is somewhat different in content from the
other Vedas, was subsequently added to the corpus. The four Vedas each have four sections,
which are texts called Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. (There is some
overlap between Aranyakas, and Upanishads.) Vedic ritual, which is still performed daily by
some Brahmans privately at home and at public ceremonies known as ‘sacrifices’ (yajnas), is
centred on either one or several fire places (or altars) around which teams of priests of the
Brahman caste intone the Samhita sections of the Vedas, offering substances such as clarified
butter and sesame seeds into the fire while supplicating the gods.
In the Vedas, we find the mantras, hymns, partial mythology and descriptions of several dozen
major and minor deities, the most important of which are all male. Among the most important
deities are Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuna and Mitra, who have many features in common with IndoEuropean gods, and who have been variously interpreted as personifications of the forces of
nature or as ‘mythologised’ aspects of the mind. The central aims of Vedic religious activities are
the maintenance of cosmic order (rita) through the correct performance of ‘sacrifices’ (yajnas),
and the obtaining of worldly benefits from those rites. In the hymns the gods are eulogised and
mostly asked for wealth, health, long life, protection, and also, in some passages, for victory for
the paler-skinned Aryans over the dark-skinned dasas, the local people whose territory, forts and
cattle were plundered. Horses, chariots, spears, bows and arrows and iron weapons are
mentioned. Indra is the chief of the gods; he is praised for his prowess and invincibility in battle.
Agni is the god of the fire, a messenger for the other gods, and an accepter of sacrifices. Many
hymns are devoted to Soma, a god who is also a plant from which a drink is made, which is
consumed during some of the Vedic rituals. Soma appears to have had (though no longer has)
psychedelic properties, inducing visions and ecstasy, though its exact historical identity is still
uncertain. Both Indra and Agni enjoy drinking large quantities of Soma. The god Varuna has
associations with the sky, solar deities, oaths, ethics, and the maintenance of cosmic order (rita);
he is often paired with Mitra, who has similar associations.
The Upanishads (meaning ‘secret instruction’ or ‘sitting near’ [a teacher]) are the mystical,
philosophical texts of the Veda. The composition of the Upanishads probably began around 700
BCE, and although over two hundred Upanishads have been composed (some even in the last
century), only thirteen Upanishads are usually counted as Vedic; each is assigned to one or
another of the Vedas. The later of the classical (or Vedic) Upanishads date from around the
beginning of the Common Era, while the Maitri Upanishad possibly dates from a couple of
centuries later. Beginning in the seventh century CE, the principal Upanishads have been
commented on extensively by Indian philosophers, and form one of the main bases of Vedanta
philosophy, which is the best-known of the six systems of orthodox Hindu philosophy.
In the Vedas, although the gods, notably Indra, are occasionally invited to the sacrifice, they
reside in their own realm. They are invoked through the power of the mantras recited at the
sacrifices. We can see in the hymns of the Vedas that firstly one god and then another is
invoked. The belief in the powers and reality of several gods is generally referred to as
polytheism. However, the German Indologist Max Müller (1823–1900), who was an influential
Indological scholar, coined the term ‘henotheism’, applicable to Hinduism, which entails devotion
to a single God, while accepting the existence of other Gods. Müller believed that henotheism
represents an intermediate stage between polytheism and monotheism; he and many others
regard monotheism as a more developed or ‘advanced’ form of religion, which is reflected in the
historical progress of religious culture in the world’s religions. However, within Hinduism,
monotheistic, monist and polytheistic views co-exist side by side, particular views being
accommodated within the vast array of sects and philosophies beneath the Hindu umbrella.
Turning to the Upanishads, and in particular to the Mundaka Upanishad, we can read that there
is a higher knowledge, of Brahman; and a lower knowledge, of the Vedas and other branches of
knowledge. Meditation assists the seeker of Brahman; the wise see Brahman everywhere,
though it is without attributes; all beings come forth from the imperishable Brahman and again
return to it; Brahman resides in the “cave of the heart”; it is the light of lights, it is the ‘Truth’, but
cannot be grasped by the intellect or senses; it is one’s own self (atman). What is expressed in
this text is a kind of monism. While monotheism typically invokes a single creator God who can
be supplicated or petitioned for grace, mercy, pardon or victory in battle, the monist view (which
need not necessarily be religious; most scientists are monists) is that everything in the universe
is basically made of one kind of ‘stuff’; and that divisions of things into categories such as
‘matter’ and ‘spirit’ are ultimately not valid. Both monistic and monotheistic views are found in the
mystical traditions of the world’s religions, though many religious mystics, including those in the
Hindu tradition, maintain that there is a God who is in some sense separate or distinct from the
individual. This latter view is often also associated with the notion that, unlike other creatures,
man is ‘special’ in having the faculty or capacity to know God.
We perhaps need to be cautious of the notion of historical ‘progress’ in religion. The historical
success of, or change within, a religion is usually framed in terms of the superiority of one idea
over another. However, we should be aware of the extent to which economic and political factors
have contributed to the success and spread of the great religions of the world. We also need to
consider that even among monotheistic religions, the conception of the character of the ‘one true
God’ varies considerably from one religion to another.
Perhaps there are no definitive answers to the ‘big’ questions that religions attempt to answer in
various ways: whether, for example, there are many Gods, one God, or no God; how the world
came into being; or what happens after death. There has been disagreement on all these points
for at least two thousand years. We may have our own opinion (perhaps informed by personal
experience, reason, or both) of the nature of ultimate reality or of the character and activity of
God (or Gods). However, we need to recognise that, similarly to ourselves, other people’s views,
even if based in faith, are also generally grounded in reason or experience. Vedic ritual is still
performed and the gods are invoked by people whose own sophisticated rationality can quite
adequately explain the justification for the performance of such rites.