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Can food production be sustainably increased? Janet Cadogan Contents a Does food production need to be increased? b What is meant by sustainable food production? c The use of hydroponics and aeroponics Case study of Thanet Earth, Kent Case study of Aero-Green, Singapore d The Blue Revolution Case study of shrimp farming: Supanburi, Thailand a Does food production need to be increased? World food production continues to grow, e.g. in the past 40 years, world food production has grown by approximately 25%, and food prices in real terms have fallen by 40%. Despite this the world still faces a food security challenge. ■ 963 million people across the world are hungry. ■ Every day, almost 16,000 children die from hunger-related causes – one child every five seconds.1 The world population is expected to grow to 8.9 billion by 2050 and by this time, 84% of the population will be in those countries currently making up the ‘developing’ world. So there is a clear need to increase food production, but how? Some people believe the best way is to support existing farmers across the world. For example: Progressio2 is an international development charity working to eradicate poverty. This organisation believes e Genetic modification Monsanto’s view Other views f The Second Green Revolution Case study – Singh’s Plan for India g Tasks h References that small-scale sustainable farming can help increase food production. It points out that there are 1.4 billion smallholder farmers who have sustained poor communities for centuries and provided food for their domestic markets. Together, small-scale farmers can produce the majority of the staple crops needed to feed their own nation’s population. The charity believes that the way of life of small-scale farmers and the crucial role they can play is under threat because food has become a profit-driven industry which is concerned with growing the biggest quantities at the least cost.3 An alternative view is to use technology to increase food production but does it use sustainable methods? b What is meant by sustainable food production? A more sustainable agriculture seeks to make the best use of nature’s goods and services as functional inputs. It does this by paying attention to regenerative processes, such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation and soil regeneration. It may also use the natural enemies of pests rather than using chemical controls in the food production processes so it minimises the use of non-renewable inputs (pesticides and fertilizers) that damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers. Also, sustainability involves making better use of the knowledge and skills of farmers, so improving their self-reliance. Because of The Geography Magazine 1 this, people are more willing to work together to solve common management problems, such as pest, watershed, irrigation, forest and credit management.4 In essence, this is producing food in a way which is in harmony with nature. It involves sensitive management so that the soil, water and environmental resources will be available for future generations to use. So can new technologies increase food production? And are these methods sustainable? c The use of hydroponics and aeroponics Both techniques require plants to be grown without soil. In fact, scientists have known since the 19th century that soil is not needed for plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. So, if mineral nutrients are introduced into a plant’s water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. Almost any plant will grow with hydroponics and the main advantage is that pests and diseases are less likely to become a problem and therefore fewer pesticides are used. Also, greenhouses can be set up almost anywhere, as they are not so dependent on the usual physical factors associated with agriculture. Hydroponic systems are now widely used in commercial greenhouses. The world’s largest facility is Eurofresh Farms in Arizona, which sells about 125 million pounds of tomatoes a year. The usual material the plants are grown in is rockwool but other substrates include perlite, gravel and clay balls. Aeroponics is seen as cutting edge technology in the world of hydroponics. The systems require the greatest amount of technology and service compared with other hydroponic techniques. The crops are generally planted on the outside top of an enclosed chamber where they receive maximum sunlight. The plant roots are suspended in air and misted water, which has nutrients added. The fine mist sprays up onto the roots of the plants and then drips off down into the bottom where it is used again. Research suggests that aeroponic systems maximize oxygen availability at the root zone, thus helping to maximize plant growth. Aeroponic systems can be an excellent choice for medicinal herbs where clean, soil free root material is often needed. High quality medicinal roots can fetch a premium price in certain markets. This technological breakthrough in the world of herbal root production is especially useful because medicinal herb plants are typically destroyed when roots are harvested using conventional growing techniques. Research by NASA suggests that plants grown aeroponically have an 80% increase in biomass (dry weight), use 65% less water and need 25% of the nutrient input of hydroponically grown plants. However, one limitation is that only certain species of plants can survive for only so long in water before they become waterlogged and die. Supporters of hydroponics say: ■ Plants grow up to four times faster. ■ Seasonal crops can be harvested all year round. ■ Surplus water is recycled, cutting use by 20 per cent. ■ Fewer chemical pesticides are used. Critics say: ■ Without soil, the produce is bland. ■ Heated greenhouses and light are wasteful. ■ You cannot produce true organic produce. ■ Greenhouses are an eyesore. Figure 1: Hydroponics: How it works 2 The Geography Magazine Figure 2: Plants grown using aeroponics Case study of Thanet Earth, Kent (Hydroponics)5 Thanet Earth, in Kent, is the UK’s largest greenhouse development. It is partly owned by the Fresca Group, which is a huge company which supplies fresh foods to supermarkets. It is expected to open in 2010 and will be growing over 1 million plants at any time. Whilst this scale of production is seen in the Netherlands, it is unprecedented in the UK. Each of the 7 greenhouses will be 140m in length, and the size of 10 football pitches. Together, they will cover 220 acres. This development is expected to provide a 15% increase in the UK’s salad production. 2 million tomatoes will be picked each week throughout the year and peppers and cucumbers will be picked from February to October. Figures suggest that currently we only produce 3 or 4% of what we consume; for example, just 1 in every 10 peppers and 1 in every 3 cucumbers. Figure 3a: Site of Thanet Earth, Kent Figure 3b: Scale of Thanet Earth The Geography Magazine 3 Figure 3c: Greenhouse h growing peppers at Thanet Earth h Thanet Earth has many features which suggest it is a sustainable way of producing food: ■ Each greenhouse will have its own reservoir, so water used for the plants will be recycled and re-used, so there will be no drain on local supplies. ■ Curtains and shades on the roofs and windows keep 95% of the light inside the greenhouses. This reduces light pollution and is less disturbing for migrating birds. ■ Kent has 17% more light than the rest of the UK and so during the summer months, less ‘extra’ lighting will be required. It is expected to be so bright that workers will need to wear sunglasses. ■ It will use an efficient ‘combined heat and power’ system (CHP). The site is near the Kentish Flats wind farm. Located in the Thames Estuary, this is one of the UK’s largest off shore wind farms. Also, there are plans for 300+ wind turbines on the site itself, so that it can be self-sufficient in renewable energy and feed any excess energy back into the national grid. ■ The growing environment will be computer controlled, e.g. drip feeding and watering, so the plants will get just what they need so there will be less waste. ■ Hot water and carbon dioxide by-products will be collected and redirected back into the greenhouses to help plants grow. ■ 500+ jobs will be created, keeping the local communities viable. In contrast to these ‘green credentials’ some people argue that whilst Thanet Earth can help produce more of the UK’s food, it is located in the wrong place – as it is on good agricultural land. 4 The Geography Magazine Case Study of Aero-Green, Singapore (Aeroponics)6 Aero-Green is a 5.3 hectare farm and it is the first commercial aeroponics farm in Asia to adapt aeroponics technology to grow vegetables in Singapore. Aeroponics is a method of growing plants whereby the roots of the plants are suspended in the air. The plants are anchored in holes, on the top of a panel of polystyrene foam. Figure 4a Figure 4b Growing plants at Aero Green, Singapore From a sealed trough below, a fine mist of soluble nutrients is sprayed and they adhere to the roots. In supporting good and healthy growth of the plants, the availability of air in the root zone is critical. In aeroponics, air is present, unlike hydroponic systems where water is circulated to encourage aeration of the solution. Besides substantial savings in water and land, two of Singapore’s most prized assets, the system also produces cleaner vegetables as they are cultivated in a protected environment. The principle of aeroponics lies in the periodic spraying of plant roots with a nutrient mist, which encourages the growth of an extensive network of fine lateral roots. Because the collective surface area represented by these tiny roots is very large, the uptake of oxygen and nutrients is much greater than usual, which ultimately allows the plant to grow faster. The cutting edge technology in cultivating vegetables is ideal for countries where water and land are scarce. The Geography Magazine 5 d The Blue Revolution Just like the Green Revolution of the 1960s, the Blue Revolution of the 1970s and 1980s was supposed to increase food production and reduce hunger in many parts of the world. According to an article in New Internationalist (1992)7, the World Bank, along with many aid agencies were pumping $200 million a year into aquaculture projects. In the Philippines, Thailand and Ecuador, huge areas of mangrove forests were chopped down to make way for shrimp ponds. Also, the floodplains of the Ganges, Irrawaddy and Mekong rivers were used for fish farms, farming carp and tilapia. So great was the growth, that between 1975 and 1985, the output from world aquaculture doubled. Currently, fish farming is the fastest growing form of agriculture. Aquaculture offers developing countries a means to earn foreign exchange through high-value species, such as prawns and salmon, and a way for poor communities to maintain a healthy diet and earn an income. Also, it is a relatively efficient way to produce animal protein: beef cattle require seven pounds of grain to produce a pound of meat but catfish require only 1.7 pounds of grain to produce a pound of fish. But if aquaculture projects are not carried out in an environmentally responsible way, they can cause water pollution, wetland loss, and mangrove swamp destruction. There are serious concerns, for example: ■ Man made shrimp ponds are dotted along the coasts of many countries from Taiwan to Ecuador. They are seen to be capital intensive, with TNC investors including CocaCola and General Foods. This has led to the destruction of mangrove forests. On top of this, their polluted waste water is damaging the local wild shrimp fisheries and sugar plantations. ■ Japan has many fish farms along its coast, producing salmon, prawn, flounder, yellowtail, red sea bream and other high value species. However, some critics believe that major disease and pollution problems are beginning to show up as fish waste and uneaten food builds up on the sea floor – in some cases it is said to be 30 centimetres thick. This sludge prevents the growth of aquatic animals, reduces water quality and may be linked to ‘red tides’ of toxic algal blooms. As well as killing fish, it can poison people who eat contaminated seafood. By adding antibiotics to the ponds, many believe that drug resistance has built up in the pests and this is not desirable in a food crop. ■ Along Canada’s Pacific ‘Sunshine Coast’, there are over 100 salmon farms. Whilst they do provide a ‘cheaper salmon’ for the consumer, they have many critics. Some say they are responsible for ‘red-tide’ outbreaks; they pollute the shores with waste and biocides (and other medication used to treat the fish). One estimate was that an average salmon farm produces the same volume of effluent as a town of 40,000 people. Also, the farmed fish often ‘escape’ from broken pens and they move into local rivers, breeding with or forcing out the wild salmon. They can spread diseases including sea lice and bacterial kidney infections. ■ Another issue is the sustainability of feeding carnivorous fin fish, such as salmon. They are fed fish-meal made from wild caught fish such as herrings. It is estimated that it takes about 3 pounds of feed fish to raise 1 pound of salmon. Thus, many argue that the success of marine aquaculture is at the expense of existing fisheries. The fish farms are not providing food for the local population; neither are they providing them with jobs. All too often, local people have lost the work they used to have on farms and sugar plantations; and their homes are now more vulnerable to storms as the mangroves, which once protected their shorelines, are gone. Case study of shrimp farming: Supanburi, Thailand In the 1990s the Thai government recognised that uncontrolled shrimp farming was damaging the country and allocated money for more sustainable development and management techniques. Initiatives supported by the World Bank and FAO (UN) aided training, the development of a shrimp farming code of conduct and aquaculture zoning, as well as research into water recycling and zero-discharge farming methods. Mangroves were re-established in old, abandoned shrimp farms and shrimp diseases were investigated. As a result, low-salinity shrimp farming for black tiger shrimp was introduced in areas much further inland from the coast, such as at Supanburi. 6 The Geography Magazine This was a big change as intensive shrimp culture had previously been concentrated along narrow belts of land in coastal areas. The rapid development of low-salinity culture in freshwater areas was only possible by moving large volumes of sea or salt pan water inland. The profit being made from paddy rice cultivation was less favourable than shrimp farming and so it has created a major land and water management challenge. The debate over the potential environmental impacts of inland shrimp farming was based on 3 issues: 1. Whether the ‘closed’ production systems minimize environmental impacts. 2. The ability of the Thai government to enforce environmental protection regulations. 3. The emergence of cumulative environmental impacts. In 1998 the Thai government banned low-salinity shrimp farming in the central area but protests by farmers meant that it was difficult to enforce. There is much debate over whether this type of farming is sustainable, but certainly salinization and water pollution are big environmental concerns.8 Figure 5: Fi 5 SSupanburi b i province, i Thailand il d e Genetic modification Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are a contentious issue. Many people point to the benefits GMOs could offer medicine, agriculture and pest control. Others see GMOs as threats to the environment and to human health. ■ plants that can produce novel products such as plastics ■ new treatments for genetic disorders ■ bacteria that can clean up soil contamination9 GM technology offers: ■ pest and disease resistant crops which should lead to reductions in insecticide use ■ weedkiller resistant crops that make weed control easier ■ rice with added vitamin A ■ potatoes with more protein ■ drought resistant crops Set against these benefits are potential risks. Will genes from modified crops escape into wild plants, protecting them from their natural pests, or from weedkillers? Will GM crops disturb natural ecosystems, harm wildlife, or pollinate organic crops, invalidating their organic status? http://www.nerc.ac.uk/publications/other/gm.asp (see this site for a booklet which gives a very balanced view and which you can download) The Geography Magazine 7 Monsanto’s view Monsanto is an agricultural company which has developed GMOs. On its website it states “We apply innovation and technology to help farmers around the world produce more while conserving more. We help farmers to grow yields sustainably so they can be successful, produce healthier foods, better animal feeds and more fibre, while also reducing agriculture’s impact on our environment”.10 The company states some of its successes: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Mexico – yield increases with herbicide tolerant soya beans of 9 per cent. Romania – yield increases with herbicide tolerant soya beans have averaged 31 per cent. Philippines – average yield increase of 15 per cent with herbicide tolerant corn. Philippines – average yield increase of 24 per cent with insect resistant corn. Hawaii – virus resistant papaya has increased yields by an average of 40 per cent. As well as increased yields, so increasing food production, other benefits are said to come from using GMOs. For example: ■ ■ Reduced rates of pesticides and herbicides used. Reduced fuel use and less carbon dioxide emissions. The reduction in greenhouse gas emissions associated with GM crops for 2006 is estimated to be equal to removing more than half a million cars from the road. On average, the volume of herbicide used on corn has dropped 20 per cent since herbicide tolerant corn was introduced in 1996. Approximately 95 per cent of the soya beans and 75 per cent of the corn in the United States are GM. More than 95 per cent of the soya beans in Argentina and half the soya beans grown in Brazil are GM. Where given the choice, farmers have consistently adopted GM crops quickly and widely because they see the improvement these products deliver. Whether it is increases in yield, or other benefits, some farmers see value in growing GM crops. However there are other views on the use of GMOs. Other views Biggest Brazilian soya state loses taste for GM seed11 Farmers in Brazil’s Mato Grosso, the country’s top soya state, are shunning genetically modified soya varieties in favour of conventional seeds after the hi-tech type showed poor yields. Another reason for Mato Grosso’s ongoing shift away from GM-soya is that trading houses and meat processors strive to avoid GM foods in favour of conventional soya as they are conscious of consumer demand. As a result they will pay a premium for it. Other potential effects have been given:12 On the environment Biodiversity could be affected as GMOs breed with ‘wild species’ and we would lose the varieties we currently have, i.e. there would be a reduced ‘gene pool’. ■ There is no sound evidence on whether genes might mutate over generations. ■ Insect pollinators, e.g. bees, might be adversely affected by GM pollen. On human health ■ Some people have allergic reactions to certain foods, e.g. nuts. When scientists transferred a nut gene into a soya bean, the potential to cause the same dangerous reaction was also passed on. Socio-economic effects ■ Farmers may have to pay large sums of money to the big agricultural companies. It has even been suggested that ‘terminator technologies’ will mean that a crop may not be able to be grown the following year from its own seed. So the debate is still very much alive. The world leading producers of GM crops are the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India and China, however many countries will not allow GM technology to be utilised on a large scale, though ‘field trials’ may take place. 8 The Geography Magazine f The Second Green Revolution In the 1960s the green revolution was seen by many as the answer to hunger and starvation. It was believed that through using mechanisation, chemicals, new strains of plants and more efficient use of transport and land organisation, agricultural production would increase greatly. And so it did; however there were associated environmental, social and economic costs. Today, India is again struggling to meet the needs of its growing affluent population, who demand not only more food but a greater variety too. As a result, there have been calls for a second green revolution “so that the spectre of food shortages is banished from the horizon once again”. (Singh 2006)13 Case study – Singh’s Plan for India In January 2006, Manmohan Singh, India’s Prime Minister, set out a 7 point plan to increase agricultural productivity and rural development. His concern is that whilst India has one of the fastest growing economies in the world, its agriculture is not benefiting. It is suggested that India could help feed the world, yet it can barely feed itself. Singh’s plan is based on a need for large scale investment in rural areas, which will allow a greater use of affordable technologies. It includes: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ soil health enhancement water harvesting and conservation access to affordable credit reform of crop and life insurance improvement of rural infrastructure regulation of the farm market application of science and technology to improve seed quality and productivity of livestock and poultry. To enable this to happen, the Indian government has plans to bring more than 10 million hectares of land under cultivation with proper irrigation facilities. They argue that it will be done sustainably but many are concerned about the increased supply of water this will demand. g Tasks 1. 2. 3. 4. Watch the videos on the Thanet Earth website. Debate the GMO issue – For or Against the use of GMOs to increase food production. Draw tables based on the methods listed above, to evaluate their sustainability. Use two columns for each one, headed sustainable and unsustainable. Answer the question: ‘Critically assess attitudes towards the sustainability of food supply.’ h 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 References: www.bread.org/learn/hunger-basics/hunger-factsinternational.html www.ciir.org/Progressio/Internal/9736/smallscalefarming www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_ docs/2009/f/ft_conference_reportfinal.pdf www.essex.ac.uk/ces/esu/occasionalpapers/ SAFE%20FINAL www.thanetearth.com www.aerogreentech.com.sg/aero/about_aerogree. htm New Internationalist www.newint.org/issue234/ blue.htm www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1579/0044-744729.3.174 www.nerc.ac.uk/publications/other/gm.as www.monsanto.com/monsanto_today/for_the_ record/gm_crops_increase_yields.asp Reuters (13 March 2009) www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo8. htm www.redherring.com/Home/15128 The Geography Magazine 9