Download Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary

Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
Lecture #10 :Religions 2 (Fringe Religions)
3. Confucianism (Jukyō 儒教)
Based on the teaching of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (552-479 b.c.).
At first glance, Confucianism looks like a very minor religion in Japan Very few people
formally identify themselves as Confucians – those that do are mainly scholars or
philosophers. There is only one major center left: Yushima Seidô in Tokyo (founded by
the Tokugawa shogunate in 1690). Yet Confucianism is influential. Where Shinto is a
set of magical beliefs with no moral code, Confucianism seems like the opposite: an
elaborate code of behavior, a philosophy that has appealed to rulers because of its stress
on obedience and order. (That’s why the shoguns were interested enough to set up
Yushima Seidō.)
Morality based on social order: Confucianism recognizes five virtues, deriving
from five fundamental human relationships: justice, between ruler and ruled;
benevolence, between parent and child; propriety, between husband and wife; order,
between elder and younger; and sincerity, between friends. Note that all but the last of
those five virtues are modeled on unequal relationships assuming a senior and junior
partner.
Conservative politicians still find Confucius an inspiration. Confucius says in
The Analects, "If the people have no faith in their leaders, they cannot stand." That is
one of Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's favorite maxims. Koizumi loves to quote
Confucius. Much of the unequal reciprocity in Japanese culture (see ‘Exchange’
Lecture) derives from Confucianism: leaders benevolently look after followers;
followers offer loyalty in exchange.
To sum up: The statistics are never really true. They make Shinto and Buddhism appear
more influential then they really are… they make Confucianism appear less influential
than it really is… because its influence is social and philosophical, not really religious.
4. Taoism
Said to have been founded by the Chinese philosopher Lao Tsu (老子・ろうし) also
written Lao-Tse, Laozi etc., 604-531 b.c.). A contemporary of Confucius. In China
Taoism became one of the three great religions, alongside Buddhism and Confucianism.
Belief in ‘the way’ 道 – believers try to live in harmony with the universe, balancing
yin 陰 and yang 陽.
Taoism reached Japan in the 7th century, but never became a major religion. To
this day it has an exotic, esoteric image… yet it has left its mark on folk beliefs, often
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
through ideas incorporated into Shinto: For example, the six-day calendar imported
from China is thought to originate in Taoism.
Shakko, Sensho, Tomobiki, Senpu, Butsumetsu, Tai’an
Luckiest day: Tai’an 大安
Unluckiest day: Butsumetsu 仏滅
(Most Japanese calendars give the days their names in the six-day Chinese cycle as well
as in the Western-derived seven-day cycle.)
In surveys, some 60% of Japanese people say they pay attention to [un]lucky days.
Nobody wants to get married on Butsumetsu, so ‘bridal plazas’ may be hired
much more cheaply on that day. Nobody wants to hold a funeral on Tomobiki since it
literally means “take a friend with you” – so funeral plazas may offer a discount on that
day.
The 12-year cycle of animals (Year of the Rat, Year of the Snake, etc.) also
derives from Taoism. Once every 60 years there is a sharp drop in the birthrate when the
‘Year of the Fiery Horse’ (Hinoeuma) comes round, since women born in that year are
supposed to wild and uncontrollable, and hence men tend not to want to marry them.
Last Hinoemua: 1966. Next: 2026.
Feng Shui (Fusui 風水) is another aspect of Taoist thought that has made a big
impact in Japan. A geomancer is often consulted before designing a new building. The
north-east direction is considered especially unlucky: known as the kimon 鬼 門
(‘devil’s gate’).
5. Christianity
Dates from the arrival of Francis Xavier in 1549, and has a chequered history:
1550 – 1600: Christianity encouraged by Oda Nobunaga and Hideyoshi Toyotomi.
1600 – 1853: Suppressed with increasing brutality by the shoguns. Massacres… (30,000
killed at Nagasaki in 1638) fumie 踏み絵 …making one stamp on an image of the
cross to prove he was not Christian.
1853 – 1945: Missionaries return, then Christianity suppressed again with rise of state
Shinto…
Since 1945: Freedom of worship and a major influx of Christian missionaries.
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
A small minority: Christians have never made up more than about 1% of the population,
despite extensive missionary activity. Why? Many say because of its exclusivity:
whereas Buddhism and Shinto have got along together reasonably well over the
centuries (give or take a few hostile periods), Christianity calls itself the one true faith
and demands that converts abandon other religions. That has been hard to accept in a
culture where it is thought quite healthy to turn to different religions for different
purposes.
But Christianity has made an impact in various ways.
1. Education – Many of Japan’s best private universities are Christian-run: Sophia, ICU,
Aoyama Gakuin, Obirin, Nanzan, Doshisha, Kwansei Gakuin…Meiji Gakuin. Few
students are Christians, but they meet a few Christian ideas while at college.
2. Literature – Some of Japan’s finest novelists have been Christians: Shusaku Endo 遠
藤周作 (1923-1996) for instance. Works include Silence, Scandal, The Samurai、Deep
River, and Life of Jesus. Endo was a Catholic and a lot of the power in his writing
comes from the Christian experience of suffering and persecution.
3. Social activism 社会運動 – For example, my impression is that a majority of the
groups doing support work with homeless people in Japanese cities are affiliated to
some branch of Christianity.
4. Popular culture 大衆文化 – Though Christianity itself has never taken hold,
elements of the Christian lifestyle certainly have – Christmas, Valentines Day, and of
course, Christian weddings. With its romantic, Western image, Christianity is a strong
brand name in Japan even if not actually believed in by that many people.
Reference: Packaged Japaneseness: Weddings, Business, and Brides by Ofra
Goldstein-Gidoni (London: Curzon Consumasian Book Series, 1997).
6. New religions 新興宗教
Japanese people often say that in the good (?) old days, alienated youths would join
some kind of extremist political sect, but these days they are more likely to join a new
religion. There are thousands of new religions in Japan, ranging from tiny local
personality cults to massive organizations with millions of members and international
branches. Collectively they represent arguably the most important form of religiosity in
Japan today. Numbers may be smaller than for Shintō and Buddhism, but for most
people being a believer of a new religion means a lot more than being a Buddhist or
Shintoist – it means regular participation in religious events, and often the sacrifice of a
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
large part of one’s income. Growth in membership of new religions reflects a prevalent
sense that mainstream religions do not satisfy people’s spiritual needs.
Rank
Name
Type
Founded Est.
membership
Type
1
Soka Gakkai
創価学会
1930
8 million?
Buddhist
2
Rissho Kōseikai*
立正佼成会
1938
4 million
Buddhist
3
Reiyūkai
霊友会
1920
1.5 million
Buddhist
4
Busshō Gonenkai*
佛所護念会
1950
1.4 million
Buddhist
5
Kenshōkai
顕正会
1942
1.3 million
Buddhist
6
Tenrikyō
天理教
1854
1.2 million
Shinto mix
7
Kōfuku no Kagaku
幸福の科学
1986
1 million?$
Mix
8
Sekai Kyūseikyō**
世界救世教
1935
0.8 million
Mix
9
Perfect Liberty
ﾊﾟｰﾌｪｸﾄﾘﾊﾞﾃｨｰ
1924
1.0 million
Mix
10
Myōchikai*
妙智会
1952
0.9 million
Buddhist
11
Shinnyōen
真如苑
1951
0.8 million
Buddhist
12
Seichō no Ie
生長の家
1930
0.7 million
Mix
13
Mahikari***
崇教真光
1963
0.6 million?
Mix
* Breakaway groups from Reiyūkai
** English name: Church of World Messianity
*** Closely related to Sekai Kyūseikyō
$ This number is a complete guess by Gill. Claims 12 million members in 80 countries
Sōka Gakkai: The biggest new religion of all is Sōka Gakkai. Founded by Tsunesaburo
Makiguchi (1871-1944), who was succeeded as supreme leader by Josei Toda
(1911-1958), and then by Daisaku Ikeda (b. 1928), who remains the effective leader of
SG to this day. The movement revolves around him.
Soka Gakkai is officially described as a ‘lay Buddhist’ movement. It used to be
affiliated to Nichiren Shōshū, a major Buddhist sect headquartered at Taisekiji Temple
on Mount Fuji. On 28 November 1991 a power struggle between SG leader Daisaku
Ikeda and the Nichiren priests ended in Sōka Gakkai being expelled en masse from
Nichiren Shōshū.
SG has millions of members: Even the lowest membership estimates suggest
that almost everybody in Japan who is not himself a member of Sōka Gakkai is either
acquainted with a member or related to a member. Sōka Gakkai controls Kōmeitō (the
‘Clean Government Party’) – Japan’s third biggest political party, currently in
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
government as junior partner in the LDP coalition. The party’s vote is rock solid – since
it can depend on millions of Sōka Gakkai believers to support it. The Gakkai also has its
own university (Sōka University, in Saitama).
Risshō Kōseikai
This started in 1938 as a breakaway faction of Reiyukai, which like Sōka Gakkai, was
itself an offshoot of Nichiren Buddhism, created in 1920. (Reiyukai still exists and is in
top ten new religions itself with about 1.5 million members.)
Tenrikyō: Founded by Miki Nakayama (1797-1887). “The path to the Joyous Life
originated with Oyasama, whose name is Miki Nakayama. She was settled as the Shrine
of God the Parent at the age of forty-one and spent the subsequent fifty years conveying
the teachings in their entirety and providing guidance for people.”
Global membership is estimated at 2 to 3 million. Members must pledge
themselves to ‘Besseki’ – lit. ‘separate seat’ – a pledge to give up one’s ordinary life and
join Tenrikyo. Table below shows Tenrikyō’s level of activity in its five most active
countries.
Country
Churches
etc.
Besseki
Pledges in 1999
Japan
37,523
20,289
Brazil
383
104
USA
204
80
South
Korea
152
368
Taiwan
78
812
Other new religions: Include many that take the idea of worldly benefit (see Reader
and Tanabe reference above) to extremes. They promise miracles. E.g. Kōfuku no
Kagaku (lit. ‘Science of Happiness,’ now uses ‘Happy Science’ as its official English
name), led by Ōkawa Ryūhō. Ōkawa’s book sales exceed 60 million; he has had 11 Top
Ten bestsellers since 1991. They tell you how to achieve wealth, health, happiness, love
etc. In 2009 Ōkawa launched his own political party, called the Happiness Realization
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
Party (幸福実現党 Kōfuku Jitsugen-tō). They were on the ballot in nearly every
district in the 2009 general election, but won no seats.
Shinreikyō, which claims to bring its believers ‘better skull structure’ and ‘peaceful
transmigration’ where believers do not undergo rigor mortis after passing away. Sukyo
Mahikari, which believes that Jesus Christ survived the crucifixion, escaped to Japan,
and lived in the remote village of Shingo until the age of 106. All these movements have
membership in the hundreds of thousands… and there are many, many others. On
Sukyo Mahikari, see this classic:
Dojo: Magic and Exorcism in Modern Japan by Winston Davis, (Stanford University
Press, 1982).
The AUM Affair: The 1995 nerve gas attack on the Tokyo subway by members of Aum
Shinrikyō (killing 12 people and making thousands ill) was a case of a new religion
turned deadly. AUM founder/leader Shōkō Asahara was sentenced to death on February
27, 2004; several other Aum leaders have also received the death penalty, though none
have been executed yet. Many writers have tried to explain what went wrong. Probably
the best is:
Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo by Ian Reader
(University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
On the internet, check out ‘Blind Ambition’, Patrick Bellamy’s racy account of
Asahara’s life at:
http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists_spies/terrorists/prophet/1.html?sect=22
Meanwhile, AUM, renamed ‘Aleph’, is still operating and still legal (it may even still be
tax-exempt? Not sure.) In April 2004 the Public Security Investigation Agency
estimated the group’s membership at 1,650 (http://www.cesnur.org/2004/aum_04.htm).
One lesson of the Aum Affair: This further complicates the picture of the ‘control
society’ discussed in earlier lectures. Religious freedom is guaranteed by the
constitution, and that freedom was respected to the point where Aum was literally able
to get away with murder. (The police were very slow to act against Aum, although it as
implicated in several other murder cases before the subway attack). Another hole in the
control system? On the other hand, Aum’s members, like those of other fringe groups
we have discussed, seemed to crave control. They obeyed Asahara’s every order, and
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Meiji Gakuin Lecture Course No. 3507/3508 Contemporary Japanese Culture and Society
Instructor: Tom Gill Lectures #10 Notes: Religion 2: Fringe religions
towards the end he had actually set up a shadow ministry within Aum, all ready to take
over the government of Japan one day – a particularly literal case of people on the
margins aspiring towards the mainstream.
Key points about Japanese new religions:
1. They offer material benefits in this world and salvation in the next.
2. They tend to have a strictly hierarchical order.
3. They tend to be focused on a single charismatic founder (kyōsōsama 教祖様,
worshipped as ‘living god’ (ikigami 生き神).
4. They make money from members, either by tithing or exploiting their labor.
5. They tend to relate indirectly to one of the major religions, usually Buddhism, Shintō
or Christianity.
ENDS
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