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Лекція № 2
Grammar in Use: Dentistry
•
 To talk about a future happening or a future
situation.
Future Simple
 I / we
 you / they
+ will + verb
 he / she / it
 I will send you a copy of the latest article on
oral cancer as soon as I get it.
 She will attend the European Congress next
year.
 Dentistry will be very different in a hundred
years time.
 • To say that we will be in the middle of
something at a certain time in the future.
Future Continuous
 Will be + gerund of the verb (verb +ing)
 This time tomorrow morning he will be
attending the conference on medications
and the CNS.
 I will be examining this patient tomorrow
at 3 p.m.
 • To say that something will already have the
result before a certain time in the future.
Future Perfect
 Will have + past participle of the verb.

 I think the doctor will already have arrived
by the time we begin the procedure.
 Our doctor will have consulted you by the
end of the week.
 You will have received the schedule by 5
o’clock.
Past Simple
 • To talk about actions or situations in the
past (they have already finished):
 I enjoyed the course of Anatomy last term.
 • To say that one thing happened after
another:
 Yesterday we had a terrible duty.
 • To talk about happenings and actions
that are not connected with the present
(historical events):
 Fleming discovered penicillin.
Past Simple
 The simple past has the following forms:
 • Affirmative:
 The past of the regular verbs is formed by
adding -ed to the infinitive (treated).
 The past of the irregular verbs has its own
form (write – wrote).
 • Negative:
 Did/didn't + the base form of the verb.
 • Questions:
 ± Did I/you/. . . + the base form of the verb
 To say that someone was in the middle of
doing something at a certain time.
Past Continuous
 Was/were + gerund of the verb.
 This time last year I was writing an article on
lipid metabolism.
 The doctor was examining the patient when
the nurse entered the ward.
 The dentist was measuring the depth of
periodontal pocket at 6 o’clock yesterday.
 When I entered the hospital, many patients
were waiting in the corridor.
Past Perfect
 Shows an action that happened in the past
before another past action.
 Had + past participle of the verb.
Past Perfect is used:
 • To say that something had already
happened before something else
happened:
 When I arrived at the meeting, the chairman
had already begun his presentation.
 We use adverbial modifiers of time: by 5
o'clock, by the end of the year:
 • He had sent his abstracts to the Congress
by the 1st of June.
MODAL VERBS

Modal verb
Meaning
Example
Can
(past form – “could”)
ability
One can classify developmental
abnormalities of teeth into several
categories
May
(past form – “might”)
permission
or
possibility
Genetic
factors
may
cause
abnormalities of tooth development
Must
(past form – “had to”)
obligation
For treating class III malocclusion,
a direct cause must be identified
Should
(past form – “should
have + past
participle“)
advice

You should give up smoking
MODAL VERBS
 Overcrowding of teeth can cause dental caries
and gingivitis.
 Anomalies of bite can be hereditary.
 Enamel hypocalcification may affect all teeth in
the dentition.
 The patient may leave the hospital.
 The patient must follow the doctor’s prescription.
 Dental diseases must be promptly diagnosed and
treated at the early stages.
 You should follow the doctor’s instructions.
Video: Pulpitis
 In general, two damage mechanisms that may
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cause an inflammation of the pulp can be
distinguished.
But a bone infection may also develop in the
absence of bacteria.
Bacteria feed off the tissue residue and can
multiply without hindrance.
An insufficient amount of immune cells may
contribute to the development of an infectious
reaction in the bone.
The “migrating bacteria” settle in places where they
can escape the immune system.
Video: Pulpitis
 Years later, a root canal sclerosis may lead to a
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root resorption.
If there is an infectious focus, a spreading of the
bacteria may occur.
There may still be cell debris attached to the walls.
Sometimes, all these processes may occur
simultaneously in a tooth.
One should also not forget that every patient
experiences pain differently.
That is why every focus of infection should be
treated irrespective of its developmental history.