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4 Trigonometry 4.1 Radian and Degree Measure 4.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 4.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 4.4 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 4.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 4.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 4.8 Applications and Models In Mathematics Trigonometry is used to find relationships between the sides and angles of triangles, and to write trigonometric functions as models of real-life quantities. In Real Life Andre Jenny/Alamy Trigonometric functions are used to model quantities that are periodic. For instance, throughout the day, the depth of water at the end of a dock in Bar Harbor, Maine varies with the tides. The depth can be modeled by a trigonometric function. (See Example 7, page 325.) IN CAREERS There are many careers that use trigonometry. Several are listed below. • Biologist Exercise 70, page 308 • Mechanical Engineer Exercise 95, page 339 • Meteorologist Exercise 99, page 318 • Surveyor Exercise 41, page 359 279 280 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 4.1 RADIAN AND DEGREE MEASURE What you should learn • • • • Describe angles. Use radian measure. Use degree measure. Use angles to model and solve real-life problems. Why you should learn it You can use angles to model and solve real-life problems. For instance, in Exercise 119 on page 291, you are asked to use angles to find the speed of a bicycle. Angles As derived from the Greek language, the word trigonometry means “measurement of triangles.” Initially, trigonometry dealt with relationships among the sides and angles of triangles and was used in the development of astronomy, navigation, and surveying. With the development of calculus and the physical sciences in the 17th century, a different perspective arose—one that viewed the classic trigonometric relationships as functions with the set of real numbers as their domains. Consequently, the applications of trigonometry expanded to include a vast number of physical phenomena involving rotations and vibrations. These phenomena include sound waves, light rays, planetary orbits, vibrating strings, pendulums, and orbits of atomic particles. The approach in this text incorporates both perspectives, starting with angles and their measure. y e m Ter id al s Terminal side in Vertex Initial side Ini tia l si de © Wolfgang Rattay/Reuters/Corbis Angle FIGURE x Angle in standard position FIGURE 4.2 4.1 An angle is determined by rotating a ray (half-line) about its endpoint. The starting position of the ray is the initial side of the angle, and the position after rotation is the terminal side, as shown in Figure 4.1. The endpoint of the ray is the vertex of the angle. This perception of an angle fits a coordinate system in which the origin is the vertex and the initial side coincides with the positive x-axis. Such an angle is in standard position, as shown in Figure 4.2. Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation, and negative angles by clockwise rotation, as shown in Figure 4.3. Angles are labeled with Greek letters ! (alpha), (beta), and " (theta), as well as uppercase letters A, B, and C. In Figure 4.4, note that angles ! and have the same initial and terminal sides. Such angles are coterminal. y y Positive angle (counterclockwise) y α x FIGURE 4.3 α x Negative angle (clockwise) β FIGURE 4.4 Coterminal angles β x Section 4.1 y Radian and Degree Measure 281 Radian Measure The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side. One way to measure angles is in radians. This type of measure is especially useful in calculus. To define a radian, you can use a central angle of a circle, one whose vertex is the center of the circle, as shown in Figure 4.5. s=r r θ r x Definition of Radian One radian is the measure of a central angle " that intercepts an arc s equal in length to the radius r of the circle. See Figure 4.5. Algebraically, this means that Arc length radius when " 1 radian FIGURE 4.5 " s r where " is measured in radians. y 2 radians Because the circumference of a circle is 2 r units, it follows that a central angle of one full revolution (counterclockwise) corresponds to an arc length of r r 3 radians r r r 4 radians r FIGURE s 2 r. 1 radian 6 radians x 5 radians 4.6 Moreover, because 2 6.28, there are just over six radius lengths in a full circle, as shown in Figure 4.6. Because the units of measure for s and r are the same, the ratio sr has no units—it is simply a real number. Because the radian measure of an angle of one full revolution is 2, you can obtain the following. 2 1 revolution radians 2 2 1 2 revolution radians 4 4 2 2 1 revolution radians 6 6 3 These and other common angles are shown in Figure 4.7. One revolution around a circle of radius r corresponds to an angle of 2 radians because s 2r " 2 radians. r r π 6 π 4 π 2 π FIGURE π 3 2π 4.7 Recall that the four quadrants in a coordinate system are numbered I, II, III, and IV. Figure 4.8 on page 282 shows which angles between 0 and 2 lie in each of the four quadrants. Note that angles between 0 and 2 are acute angles and angles between 2 and are obtuse angles. 282 Chapter 4 Trigonometry π θ= 2 Quadrant II π < < θ π 2 Quadrant I 0 <θ < π 2 θ=0 θ =π Quadrant III Quadrant IV 3π 3π < < θ 2π π <θ< 2 2 The phrase “the terminal side of " lies in a quadrant” is often abbreviated by simply saying that “" lies in a quadrant.” The terminal sides of the “quadrant angles” 0, 2, , and 32 do not lie within quadrants. 3π θ= 2 FIGURE 4.8 Two angles are coterminal if they have the same initial and terminal sides. For instance, the angles 0 and 2 are coterminal, as are the angles 6 and 136. You can find an angle that is coterminal to a given angle " by adding or subtracting 2 (one revolution), as demonstrated in Example 1. A given angle " has infinitely many coterminal angles. For instance, " 6 is coterminal with 2n 6 where n is an integer. You can review operations involving fractions in Appendix A.1. Example 1 Sketching and Finding Coterminal Angles a. For the positive angle 136, subtract 2 to obtain a coterminal angle 13 2 . 6 6 See Figure 4.9. b. For the positive angle 34, subtract 2 to obtain a coterminal angle 3 5 2 . 4 4 See Figure 4.10. c. For the negative angle 23, add 2 to obtain a coterminal angle 2 4 2 . 3 3 See Figure 4.11. π 2 θ = 13π 6 π 2 π 6 0 π π 2 θ = 3π 4 π 4π 3 0 π 0 − 5π 4 3π 2 FIGURE 4.9 θ = − 2π 3 3π 2 FIGURE Now try Exercise 27. 4.10 3π 2 FIGURE 4.11 Section 4.1 Radian and Degree Measure 283 Two positive angles ! and are complementary (complements of each other) if their sum is 2. Two positive angles are supplementary (supplements of each other) if their sum is . See Figure 4.12. β β α Complementary angles FIGURE 4.12 Example 2 α Supplementary angles Complementary and Supplementary Angles If possible, find the complement and the supplement of (a) 25 and (b) 45. Solution a. The complement of 25 is 2 5 4 . 2 5 10 10 10 The supplement of 25 is 2 5 2 3 . 5 5 5 5 b. Because 45 is greater than 2, it has no complement. (Remember that complements are positive angles.) The supplement is 4 5 4 . 5 5 5 5 Now try Exercise 31. Degree Measure y 120° 135° 150° 90° = 41 (360°) 60° = 16 (360°) 45° = 18 (360°) 1 30° = 12 (360°) θ 180° 0° 360° 210° 330° 225° 315° 240° 270° 300° FIGURE 4.13 x A second way to measure angles is in terms of degrees, denoted by the symbol #. 1 A measure of one degree (1#) is equivalent to a rotation of 360 of a complete revolution about the vertex. To measure angles, it is convenient to mark degrees on the circumference of a circle, as shown in Figure 4.13. So, a full revolution (counterclockwise) corresponds to 360#, a half revolution to 180#, a quarter revolution to 90#, and so on. Because 2 radians corresponds to one complete revolution, degrees and radians are related by the equations 360# 2 rad and 180# rad. From the latter equation, you obtain 1# rad 180 and 1 rad 180# which lead to the conversion rules at the top of the next page. 284 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Conversions Between Degrees and Radians rad . 180# 180# . 2. To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by rad To apply these two conversion rules, use the basic relationship rad 180#. (See Figure 4.14.) 1. To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by π 6 30° π 4 45° π 2 90° 180° FIGURE π π 3 60° 2π 360° 4.14 When no units of angle measure are specified, radian measure is implied. For instance, if you write " 2, you imply that " 2 radians. Example 3 3 rad radians 180 deg 4 rad b. 540# 540 deg 3 radians 180 deg rad 3 c. 270# 270 deg radians 180 deg 2 a. 135# 135 deg T E C H N O LO G Y With calculators it is convenient to use decimal degrees to denote fractional parts of degrees. Historically, however, fractional parts of degrees were expressed in minutes and seconds, using the prime (% ) and double prime (& ) notations, respectively. That is, 1% ! one minute ! Converting from Degrees to Radians 1 60 !1#" 1 1& ! one second ! 3600!1#". Consequently, an angle of 64 degrees, 32 minutes, and 47 seconds is represented by ! 64# 32% 47&. Many calculators have special keys for converting an angle in degrees, minutes, and seconds D# M% S& to decimal degree form, and vice versa. Multiply by 180. Multiply by 180. Multiply by 180. Now try Exercise 57. Example 4 Converting from Radians to Degrees 180 deg 90# rad rad 2 2 rad 9 9 180 deg b. 810# rad rad 2 2 rad 180 deg 360# c. 2 rad 2 rad 114.59# rad a. Multiply by 180. Multiply by 180. Multiply by 180. Now try Exercise 61. If you have a calculator with a “radian-to-degree” conversion key, try using it to verify the result shown in part (b) of Example 4. Section 4.1 Radian and Degree Measure 285 Applications The radian measure formula, " sr, can be used to measure arc length along a circle. Arc Length For a circle of radius r, a central angle " intercepts an arc of length s given by s s r" θ = 240° Length of circular arc where " is measured in radians. Note that if r 1, then s ", and the radian measure of " equals the arc length. r=4 Example 5 FIGURE 4.15 Finding Arc Length A circle has a radius of 4 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle of 240#, as shown in Figure 4.15. Solution To use the formula s r", first convert 240# to radian measure. 240# 240 deg rad 180 deg 4 radians 3 Then, using a radius of r 4 inches, you can find the arc length to be s r" 4 43 16 3 16.76 inches. Note that the units for r" are determined by the units for r because " is given in radian measure, which has no units. Now try Exercise 89. Linear speed measures how fast the particle moves, and angular speed measures how fast the angle changes. By dividing the formula for arc length by t, you can establish a relationship between linear speed v and angular speed ', as shown. s r" s r" t t v r' The formula for the length of a circular arc can be used to analyze the motion of a particle moving at a constant speed along a circular path. Linear and Angular Speeds Consider a particle moving at a constant speed along a circular arc of radius r. If s is the length of the arc traveled in time t, then the linear speed v of the particle is Linear speed v arc length s . time t Moreover, if " is the angle (in radian measure) corresponding to the arc length s, then the angular speed ' (the lowercase Greek letter omega) of the particle is Angular speed ' central angle " . time t 286 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 6 10.2 cm Finding Linear Speed The second hand of a clock is 10.2 centimeters long, as shown in Figure 4.16. Find the linear speed of the tip of this second hand as it passes around the clock face. Solution In one revolution, the arc length traveled is s 2r 2 10.2 FIGURE Substitute for r. 20.4 centimeters. 4.16 The time required for the second hand to travel this distance is t 1 minute 60 seconds. So, the linear speed of the tip of the second hand is Linear speed 116 ft s t 20.4 centimeters 60 seconds 1.068 centimeters per second. Now try Exercise 111. Example 7 Finding Angular and Linear Speeds The blades of a wind turbine are 116 feet long (see Figure 4.17). The propeller rotates at 15 revolutions per minute. a. Find the angular speed of the propeller in radians per minute. b. Find the linear speed of the tips of the blades. Solution FIGURE 4.17 a. Because each revolution generates 2 radians, it follows that the propeller turns 152 30 radians per minute. In other words, the angular speed is Angular speed " t 30 radians 30 radians per minute. 1 minute b. The linear speed is Linear speed s t r" t 11630 feet 1 minute Now try Exercise 113. 10,933 feet per minute. Section 4.1 Radian and Degree Measure 287 A sector of a circle is the region bounded by two radii of the circle and their intercepted arc (see Figure 4.18). θ FIGURE r 4.18 Area of a Sector of a Circle For a circle of radius r, the area A of a sector of the circle with central angle " is given by 1 A r 2" 2 where " is measured in radians. Example 8 Area of a Sector of a Circle A sprinkler on a golf course fairway sprays water over a distance of 70 feet and rotates through an angle of 120# (see Figure 4.19). Find the area of the fairway watered by the sprinkler. Solution First convert 120# to radian measure as follows. 120° 70 ft " 120# 120 deg FIGURE 4.19 rad 180 deg Multiply by 180. 2 radians 3 Then, using " 23 and r 70, the area is 1 A r 2" 2 Formula for the area of a sector of a circle 2 1 702 2 3 Substitute for r and ". 4900 3 Simplify. 5131 square feet. Simplify. Now try Exercise 117. 288 Chapter 4 4.1 Trigonometry EXERCISES See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. 1. ________ means “measurement of triangles.” 2. An ________ is determined by rotating a ray about its endpoint. 3. Two angles that have the same initial and terminal sides are ________. 4. One ________ is the measure of a central angle that intercepts an arc equal to the radius of the circle. 5. Angles that measure between 0 and 2 are ________ angles, and angles that measure between 2 and are ________ angles. 6. Two positive angles that have a sum of 2 are ________ angles, whereas two positive angles that have a sum of are ________ angles. 1 7. The angle measure that is equivalent to a rotation of 360 of a complete revolution about an angle’s vertex is one ________. 8. 180 degrees ________ radians. 9. The ________ speed of a particle is the ratio of arc length to time traveled, and the ________ speed of a particle is the ratio of central angle to time traveled. 10. The area A of a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle ", where " is measured in radians, is given by the formula ________. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 11–16, estimate the angle to the nearest one-half radian. 11. 12. 11 6 26. (a) 4 (b) 3 25. (a) (b) 7 In Exercises 27–30, determine two coterminal angles (one positive and one negative) for each angle. Give your answers in radians. 13. π 2 27. (a) 14. π 2 (b) 5 θ= π 6 θ= π 6 π 15. 16. π 2 In Exercises 17–22, determine the quadrant in which each angle lies. (The angle measure is given in radians.) 4 6 21. (a) 3.5 19. (a) (b) 5 4 (b) 3 (b) 2.25 18. (a) 11 8 20. (a) 5 6 22. (a) 6.02 (b) 9 8 (b) In Exercises 23–26, sketch each angle in standard position. 23. (a) 3 (b) 2 3 24. (a) 7 4 (b) 5 2 π 2 (b) 7 θ= π 6 π 0 π 29. (a) " 2 3 30. (a) " 9 4 0 3π 2 3π 2 11 9 (b) 4.25 0 3π 2 3π 2 28. (a) 17. (a) π 0 (b) " θ = − 11π 6 12 (b) " 2 15 Section 4.1 289 Radian and Degree Measure In Exercises 31–34, find (if possible) the complement and supplement of each angle. 52. (a) " 390# 31. (a) 3 (b) 4 32. (a) 12 (b) 1112 33. (a) 1 (b) 2 34. (a) 3 (b) 1.5 In Exercises 53–56, find (if possible) the complement and supplement of each angle. In Exercises 35–40, estimate the number of degrees in the angle. Use a protractor to check your answer. 35. 53. (a) 18# 55. (a) 150# 57. (a) 30# 59. (a) 20# 38. 39. (b) 85# (b) 79# 54. (a) 46# 56. (a) 130# (b) 93# (b) 170# In Exercises 57–60, rewrite each angle in radian measure as a multiple of ". (Do not use a calculator.) 36. 37. (b) " 230# (b) 45# (b) 60# 58. (a) 315# (b) 120# 60. (a) 270# (b) 144# In Exercises 61–64, rewrite each angle in degree measure. (Do not use a calculator.) 40. 61. (a) 3 2 (b) 7 6 63. (a) 5 4 (b) 7 3 62. (a) 64. (a) 7 12 11 6 (b) 9 (b) 34 15 In Exercises 41–44, determine the quadrant in which each angle lies. In Exercises 65–72, convert the angle measure from degrees to radians. Round to three decimal places. 41. (a) 130# 42. (a) 8.3# 43. (a) 132# 50% (b) 285# (b) 257# 30% (b) 336# 65. 45# 67. 216.35# 66. 87.4# 68. 48.27# 44. (a) 260# (b) 3.4# 69. 532# 71. 0.83# 70. 345# 72. 0.54# In Exercises 45–48, sketch each angle in standard position. 45. (a) 90# 47. (a) 30# (b) 180# 46. (a) 270# (b) 135# 48. (a) 750# (b) 600# (b) 120# In Exercises 49–52, determine two coterminal angles (one positive and one negative) for each angle. Give your answers in degrees. 49. (a) (b) 90° 90° θ = 45° 180° 0 180° 0 θ = − 36° 270° 50. (a) 270° (b) 90° θ = 120° 180° 0 270° 51. (a) " 240# 90° θ = − 420° 180° 0 270° (b) " 180# In Exercises 73–80, convert the angle measure from radians to degrees. Round to three decimal places. 73. 75. 77. 79. 7 158 4.2 2 74. 76. 78. 80. 511 132 4.8 0.57 In Exercises 81–84, convert each angle measure to decimal degree form without using a calculator. Then check your answers using a calculator. 81. (a) 54# 45% 82. (a) 245# 10% 83. (a) 85# 18% 30& 84. (a) 135# 36& (b) 128# 30% (b) 2# 12% (b) 330# 25& (b) 408# 16% 20& In Exercises 85–88, convert each angle measure to degrees, minutes, and seconds without using a calculator. Then check your answers using a calculator. 85. (a) 240.6# 86. (a) 345.12# (b) 145.8# (b) 0.45# 87. (a) 2.5# 88. (a) 0.36# (b) 3.58# (b) 0.79# 290 Chapter 4 Trigonometry In Exercises 89–92, find the length of the arc on a circle of radius r intercepted by a central angle ". Central Angle " Radius r 89. 15 inches 90. 9 feet 91. 3 meters 120# 60# 150# 92. 20 centimeters 45# City 106. San Francisco, California Seattle, Washington In Exercises 93–96, find the radian measure of the central angle of a circle of radius r that intercepts an arc of length s. Radius r 93. 4 inches Arc Length s 18 inches 94. 14 feet 95. 25 centimeters 96. 80 kilometers 8 feet 10.5 centimeters 150 kilometers Latitude 37# 47% 36& N 47# 37% 18& N 107. DIFFERENCE IN LATITUDES Assuming that Earth is a sphere of radius 6378 kilometers, what is the difference in the latitudes of Syracuse, New York and Annapolis, Maryland, where Syracuse is about 450 kilometers due north of Annapolis? 108. DIFFERENCE IN LATITUDES Assuming that Earth is a sphere of radius 6378 kilometers, what is the difference in the latitudes of Lynchburg, Virginia and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, where Lynchburg is about 400 kilometers due north of Myrtle Beach? 109. INSTRUMENTATION The pointer on a voltmeter is 6 centimeters in length (see figure). Find the angle through which the pointer rotates when it moves 2.5 centimeters on the scale. In Exercises 97–100, use the given arc length and radius to find the angle " (in radians). 97. 98. θ 2 99. 10 in. 25 1 θ 10 6 cm 100. 28 2 ft Not drawn to scale θ 75 θ 7 FIGURE FOR 60 In Exercises 101–104, find the area of the sector of the circle with radius r and central angle ". Radius r 101. 6 inches 102. 12 millimeters 103. 2.5 feet 104. 1.4 miles Central Angle " 3 4 225# 330# DISTANCE BETWEEN CITIES In Exercises 105 and 106, find the distance between the cities. Assume that Earth is a sphere of radius 4000 miles and that the cities are on the same longitude (one city is due north of the other). City 105. Dallas, Texas Omaha, Nebraska Latitude 32# 47% 39& N 41# 15% 50& N 109 FIGURE FOR 110 110. ELECTRIC HOIST An electric hoist is being used to lift a beam (see figure). The diameter of the drum on the hoist is 10 inches, and the beam must be raised 2 feet. Find the number of degrees through which the drum must rotate. 111. LINEAR AND ANGULAR SPEEDS A circular power saw has a 714-inch-diameter blade that rotates at 5000 revolutions per minute. (a) Find the angular speed of the saw blade in radians per minute. (b) Find the linear speed (in feet per minute) of one of the 24 cutting teeth as they contact the wood being cut. 112. LINEAR AND ANGULAR SPEEDS A carousel with a 50-foot diameter makes 4 revolutions per minute. (a) Find the angular speed of the carousel in radians per minute. (b) Find the linear speed (in feet per minute) of the platform rim of the carousel. Section 4.1 113. LINEAR AND ANGULAR SPEEDS The diameter of a DVD is approximately 12 centimeters. The drive motor of the DVD player is controlled to rotate precisely between 200 and 500 revolutions per minute, depending on what track is being read. (a) Find an interval for the angular speed of a DVD as it rotates. (b) Find an interval for the linear speed of a point on the outermost track as the DVD rotates. 114. ANGULAR SPEED A two-inch-diameter pulley on an electric motor that runs at 1700 revolutions per minute is connected by a belt to a four-inch-diameter pulley on a saw arbor. (a) Find the angular speed (in radians per minute) of each pulley. (b) Find the revolutions per minute of the saw. 115. ANGULAR SPEED A car is moving at a rate of 65 miles per hour, and the diameter of its wheels is 2 feet. (a) Find the number of revolutions per minute the wheels are rotating. 116. 117. 118. 119. (b) Find the angular speed of the wheels in radians per minute. ANGULAR SPEED A computerized spin balance machine rotates a 25-inch-diameter tire at 480 revolutions per minute. (a) Find the road speed (in miles per hour) at which the tire is being balanced. (b) At what rate should the spin balance machine be set so that the tire is being tested for 55 miles per hour? AREA A sprinkler on a golf green is set to spray water over a distance of 15 meters and to rotate through an angle of 140#. Draw a diagram that shows the region that can be irrigated with the sprinkler. Find the area of the region. AREA A car’s rear windshield wiper rotates 125#. The total length of the wiper mechanism is 25 inches and wipes the windshield over a distance of 14 inches. Find the area covered by the wiper. SPEED OF A BICYCLE The radii of the pedal sprocket, the wheel sprocket, and the wheel of the bicycle in the figure are 4 inches, 2 inches, and 14 inches, respectively. A cyclist is pedaling at a rate of 1 revolution per second. 14 in. 2 in. 4 in. Radian and Degree Measure 291 (a) Find the speed of the bicycle in feet per second and miles per hour. (b) Use your result from part (a) to write a function for the distance d (in miles) a cyclist travels in terms of the number n of revolutions of the pedal sprocket. (c) Write a function for the distance d (in miles) a cyclist travels in terms of the time t (in seconds). Compare this function with the function from part (b). (d) Classify the types of functions you found in parts (b) and (c). Explain your reasoning. 120. CAPSTONE Write a short paper in your own words explaining the meaning of each of the following concepts to a classmate. (a) an angle in standard position (b) positive and negative angles (c) coterminal angles (d) angle measure in degrees and radians (e) obtuse and acute angles (f) complementary and supplementary angles EXPLORATION TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 121–123, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 121. A measurement of 4 radians corresponds to two complete revolutions from the initial side to the terminal side of an angle. 122. The difference between the measures of two coterminal angles is always a multiple of 360# if expressed in degrees and is always a multiple of 2 radians if expressed in radians. 123. An angle that measures 1260# lies in Quadrant III. 124. THINK ABOUT IT A fan motor turns at a given angular speed. How does the speed of the tips of the blades change if a fan of greater diameter is installed on the motor? Explain. 125. THINK ABOUT IT Is a degree or a radian the larger unit of measure? Explain. 126. WRITING If the radius of a circle is increasing and the magnitude of a central angle is held constant, how is the length of the intercepted arc changing? Explain your reasoning. 127. PROOF Prove that the area of a circular sector of 1 radius r with central angle " is A 2" r 2, where " is measured in radians. 292 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 4.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: THE UNIT CIRCLE What you should learn • Identify a unit circle and describe its relationship to real numbers. • Evaluate trigonometric functions using the unit circle. • Use the domain and period to evaluate sine and cosine functions. • Use a calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions. The Unit Circle The two historical perspectives of trigonometry incorporate different methods for introducing the trigonometric functions. Our first introduction to these functions is based on the unit circle. Consider the unit circle given by x2 y 2 1 Unit circle as shown in Figure 4.20. Why you should learn it y (0, 1) Trigonometric functions are used to model the movement of an oscillating weight. For instance, in Exercise 60 on page 298, the displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating weight suspended by a spring is modeled as a function of time. (−1, 0) (1, 0) x (0, −1) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs FIGURE 4.20 Imagine that the real number line is wrapped around this circle, with positive numbers corresponding to a counterclockwise wrapping and negative numbers corresponding to a clockwise wrapping, as shown in Figure 4.21. y y (x , y ) t t>0 θ (1, 0) t<0 t x (1, 0) t (x , y) FIGURE x θ t 4.21 As the real number line is wrapped around the unit circle, each real number t corresponds to a point x, y on the circle. For example, the real number 0 corresponds to the point 1, 0. Moreover, because the unit circle has a circumference of 2, the real number 2 also corresponds to the point 1, 0. In general, each real number t also corresponds to a central angle " (in standard position) whose radian measure is t. With this interpretation of t, the arc length formula s r" (with r 1) indicates that the real number t is the (directional) length of the arc intercepted by the angle ", given in radians. Section 4.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 293 The Trigonometric Functions From the preceding discussion, it follows that the coordinates x and y are two functions of the real variable t. You can use these coordinates to define the six trigonometric functions of t. sine cosecant cosine secant tangent cotangent These six functions are normally abbreviated sin, csc, cos, sec, tan, and cot, respectively. Definitions of Trigonometric Functions Let t be a real number and let x, y be the point on the unit circle corresponding to t. Note in the definition at the right that the functions in the second row are the reciprocals of the corresponding functions in the first row. sin t y 1 csc t , y y (0, 1) (− 2 , 2 2 2 (−1, 0) (− 2 , 2 FIGURE 2 2 − ( ) ) 2 , 2 2 2 x (1, 0) ( (0, −1) 2 , 2 ) − 2 2 ) 4.22 y0 cos t x y tan t , x 1 sec t , x 0 x x cot t , y 0 y In the definitions of the trigonometric functions, note that the tangent and secant are not defined when x 0. For instance, because t 2 corresponds to x, y 0, 1, it follows that tan2 and sec2 are undefined. Similarly, the cotangent and cosecant are not defined when y 0. For instance, because t 0 corresponds to x, y 1, 0, cot 0 and csc 0 are undefined. In Figure 4.22, the unit circle has been divided into eight equal arcs, corresponding to t-values of 3 5 3 7 0, , , , , , , , and 2. 4 2 4 4 2 4 Similarly, in Figure 4.23, the unit circle has been divided into 12 equal arcs, corresponding to t-values of 2 5 7 4 3 5 11 0, , , , , , , , , , , , and 2. 6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6 To verify the points on the unit circle in Figure 4.22, note that y ( − 21 , (− 3 1 , 2 2 3 2 ) (−1, 0) (− 3 , 2 − 21 ( 21 , 23 ) ( 23 , 21 ) (1, 0) 4.23 22, 22 also lies on the line y x. So, substituting x for y in the equation of the unit circle produces the following. x x2 x2 1 ( 21 , − 23 ) 3 (0, −1) 2 ) ( 23 , − 21 ) 2x2 1 x2 Because the point is in the first quadrant, x have y ) (− 21 , − FIGURE ) (0, 1) x0 2 1 2 2 2 x± 2 2 and because y x, you also . You can use similar reasoning to verify the rest of the points in 2 Figure 4.22 and the points in Figure 4.23. Using the x, y coordinates in Figures 4.22 and 4.23, you can evaluate the trigonometric functions for common t-values. This procedure is demonstrated in Examples 1, 2, and 3. You should study and learn these exact function values for common t-values because they will help you in later sections to perform calculations. 294 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 1 You can review dividing fractions and rationalizing denominators in Appendix A.1 and Appendix A.2, respectively. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Evaluate the six trigonometric functions at each real number. 5 a. t b. t c. t 0 d. t 6 4 Solution For each t-value, begin by finding the corresponding point x, y on the unit circle. Then use the definitions of trigonometric functions listed on page 293. a. t b. t 3 1 corresponds to the point x, y , . 6 2 2 sin 1 y 6 2 csc 1 1 2 6 y 12 cos 3 x 6 2 sec 1 23 2 3 6 x 3 tan 3 y 12 1 6 x 32 3 3 cot x 32 3 6 y 12 2 2 5 corresponds to the point x, y , . 4 2 2 sin 2 5 y 4 2 csc 5 1 2 2 2 4 y cos 2 5 x 4 2 sec 2 5 1 2 2 4 x tan 5 y 22 1 4 x 22 cot 5 x 22 1 4 y 22 c. t 0 corresponds to the point x, y 1, 0. sin 0 y 0 csc 0 1 is undefined. y cos 0 x 1 sec 0 1 1 1 x 1 cot 0 x is undefined. y y 0 0 x 1 tan 0 d. t corresponds to the point x, y 1, 0. sin y 0 csc 1 is undefined. y cos x 1 sec 1 1 1 x 1 cot x is undefined. y tan y 0 0 x 1 Now try Exercise 23. Section 4.2 Example 2 295 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Evaluate the six trigonometric functions at t . 3 Solution Moving clockwise around the unit circle, it follows that t 3 corresponds to the point x, y 12, 32. 3 2 csc 3 2 sec 3 cot sin cos tan 3 3 3 2 23 3 3 2 1 32 3 12 3 32 3 3 12 1 3 Now try Exercise 33. Domain and Period of Sine and Cosine y (0, 1) (1, 0) (−1, 0) x −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 The domain of the sine and cosine functions is the set of all real numbers. To determine the range of these two functions, consider the unit circle shown in Figure 4.24. By definition, sin t y and cos t x. Because x, y is on the unit circle, you know that 1 ( y ( 1 and 1 ( x ( 1. So, the values of sine and cosine also range between 1 and 1. 1 ( (1 1 ( sin t ( 1 (0, −1) and 1 ( x (1 1 ( cos t ( 1 Adding 2 to each value of t in the interval 0, 2 completes a second revolution around the unit circle, as shown in Figure 4.25. The values of sint 2 and cost 2 correspond to those of sin t and cos t. Similar results can be obtained for repeated revolutions (positive or negative) on the unit circle. This leads to the general result −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 FIGURE y 4.24 sint 2 n sin t and t= t= 3π 3π 4, 4 π π , 2 2 + 2π , π2 + 4π, ... y + 2π , ... t= π π , 4 4 + 2π , ... cost 2 n cos t for any integer n and real number t. Functions that behave in such a repetitive (or cyclic) manner are called periodic. t = π, 3π, ... x t = 0, 2π, ... t= 5π 5π 4, 4 + 2π , ... t= FIGURE 4.25 3π 3π , 2 2 t = 74π , 74π + 2π , ... + 2π , 32π + 4π, ... Definition of Periodic Function A function f is periodic if there exists a positive real number c such that f t c f t for all t in the domain of f. The smallest number c for which f is periodic is called the period of f. 296 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Recall from Section 1.5 that a function f is even if f t f t, and is odd if f t f t. Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions The cosine and secant functions are even. cost cos t sect sec t The sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent functions are odd. sint sin t csct csc t tant tan t cott cot t Example 3 1 13 13 sin . 2 , you have sin sin 2 6 6 6 6 6 2 a. Because From the definition of periodic function, it follows that the sine and cosine functions are periodic and have a period of 2. The other four trigonometric functions are also periodic, and will be discussed further in Section 4.6. Using the Period to Evaluate the Sine and Cosine b. Because 7 4 , you have 2 2 cos 7 cos 4 cos 0. 2 2 2 4 4 c. For sin t , sint because the sine function is odd. 5 5 Now try Exercise 37. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions with a Calculator T E C H N O LO G Y When evaluating trigonometric functions with a calculator, remember to enclose all fractional angle measures in parentheses. For instance, if you want to evaluate sin t for t ! "/6, you should enter SIN ) 6 ENTER . These keystrokes yield the correct value of 0.5. Note that some calculators automatically place a left parenthesis after trigonometric functions. Check the user’s guide for your calculator for specific keystrokes on how to evaluate trigonometric functions. When evaluating a trigonometric function with a calculator, you need to set the calculator to the desired mode of measurement (degree or radian). Most calculators do not have keys for the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions. To evaluate these functions, you can use the x 1 key with their respective reciprocal functions sine, cosine, and tangent. For instance, to evaluate csc8, use the fact that csc 1 8 sin8 and enter the following keystroke sequence in radian mode. SIN Example 4 Function 2 a. sin 3 b. cot 1.5 ) 8 x 1 ENTER Display 2.6131259 Using a Calculator Mode Calculator Keystrokes Radian SIN Radian TAN Now try Exercise 55. 2 3 ) 1.5 Display ENTER 0.8660254 x 1 0.0709148 ENTER Section 4.2 EXERCISES 4.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 297 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. 1. Each real number t corresponds to a point x, y on the ________ ________. 2. A function f is ________ if there exists a positive real number c such that f t c f t for all t in the domain of f. 3. The smallest number c for which a function f is periodic is called the ________ of f. 4. A function f is ________ if f t f t and ________ if f t f t. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 5–8, determine the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the real number t. y 5. 6. ( 12 5 , 13 13 ( y (− 178 , 1715 ( t θ θ t x 11 6 3 25. t 2 24. t 23. t 26. t 2 In Exercises 27–34, evaluate (if possible) the six trigonometric functions of the real number. x 2 3 4 29. t 3 5 6 7 30. t 4 28. t 27. t y 7. y 8. t t θ θ x ( (− 45 , − 35( 12 , 13 5 − 13 ( In Exercises 9–16, find the point x, y on the unit circle that corresponds to the real number t. 2 11. t 4 5 13. t 6 4 15. t 3 9. t 3 4 31. t x 33. t 32. t 2 34. t In Exercises 35– 42, evaluate the trigonometric function using its period as an aid. 35. sin 4 36. cos 3 37. cos 7 3 38. sin 9 4 3 3 14. t 4 5 16. t 3 39. cos 17 4 40. sin 19 6 12. t 41. sin 8 3 6 7 21. t 4 19. t 18. t 3 4 4 22. t 3 20. t 42. cos 9 4 In Exercises 43–48, use the value of the trigonometric function to evaluate the indicated functions. 43. sin t 2 (a) sint 44. sint 8 (a) sin t (b) csct 1 45. cost 5 (a) cos t (b) sect (b) csc t 3 46. cos t 4 (a) cost (b) sect 1 4 3 2 10. t In Exercises 17–26, evaluate (if possible) the sine, cosine, and tangent of the real number. 17. t 5 3 4 47. sin t 5 (a) sin t (b) sint 3 4 48. cos t 5 (a) cos t (b) cost 298 Chapter 4 Trigonometry In Exercises 49–58, use a calculator to evaluate the trigonometric function. Round your answer to four decimal places. (Be sure the calculator is set in the correct angle mode.) 49. sin 4 50. tan 3 51. cot 4 52. csc 2 3 53. cos1.7 55. csc 0.8 57. sec22.8 66. 67. 54. cos2.5 56. sec 1.8 58. cot0.9 68. 59. HARMONIC MOTION The displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating weight suspended by a spring is given by yt 14 cos 6t, where y is the displacement (in feet) and t is the time (in seconds). Find the displacements when (a) t 0, (b) t 14, and (c) t 12. 60. HARMONIC MOTION The displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating weight suspended by a spring and subject to the damping effect of friction is given by y t 14et cos 6t, where y is the displacement (in feet) and t is the time (in seconds). (a) Complete the table. t 0 1 4 1 2 3 4 1 y (b) Use the table feature of a graphing utility to approximate the time when the weight reaches equilibrium. (c) What appears to happen to the displacement as t increases? 69. 70. 71. (b) Make a conjecture about any relationship between sin t1 and sin t1. (c) Make a conjecture about any relationship between cos t1 and cos t1. Use the unit circle to verify that the cosine and secant functions are even and that the sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent functions are odd. Verify that cos 2t 2 cos t by approximating cos 1.5 and 2 cos 0.75. Verify that sint1 t2 sin t1 sin t2 by approximating sin 0.25, sin 0.75, and sin 1. THINK ABOUT IT Because f t sin t is an odd function and gt cos t is an even function, what can be said about the function ht f tgt? THINK ABOUT IT Because f t sin t and gt tan t are odd functions, what can be said about the function ht f tgt? GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS With your graphing utility in radian and parametric modes, enter the equations X1T cos T and Y1T sin T and use the following settings. Tmin 0, Tmax 6.3, Tstep 0.1 Xmin 1.5, Xmax 1.5, Xscl 1 Ymin 1, Ymax 1, Yscl 1 (a) Graph the entered equations and describe the graph. (b) Use the trace feature to move the cursor around the graph. What do the t-values represent? What do the x- and y-values represent? (c) What are the least and greatest values of x and y? EXPLORATION TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 61– 64, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 61. Because sint sin t, it can be said that the sine of a negative angle is a negative number. 62. tan a tana 6 63. The real number 0 corresponds to the point 0, 1 on the unit circle. 64. cos 7 cos 2 2 65. Let x1, y1 and x2, y2 be points on the unit circle corresponding to t t1 and t t1, respectively. (a) Identify the symmetry of the points x1, y1 and x2, y2. 72. CAPSTONE A student you are tutoring has used a unit circle divided into 8 equal parts to complete the table for selected values of t. What is wrong? t 0 x 1 y 0 sin t 1 cos t 0 tan t Undef. 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 Undef. Section 4.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 299 4.3 RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY • Evaluate trigonometric functions of acute angles. • Use fundamental trigonometric identities. • Use a calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions. • Use trigonometric functions to model and solve real-life problems. The Six Trigonometric Functions Our second look at the trigonometric functions is from a right triangle perspective. Consider a right triangle, with one acute angle labeled ", as shown in Figure 4.26. Relative to the angle ", the three sides of the triangle are the hypotenuse, the opposite side (the side opposite the angle "), and the adjacent side (the side adjacent to the angle "). ten us e Why you should learn it Hy po Trigonometric functions are often used to analyze real-life situations. For instance, in Exercise 76 on page 309, you can use trigonometric functions to find the height of a helium-filled balloon. Side opposite θ What you should learn θ Side adjacent to θ FIGURE 4.26 Using the lengths of these three sides, you can form six ratios that define the six trigonometric functions of the acute angle ". sine cosecant cosine secant tangent cotangent Joseph Sohm/Visions of America/Corbis In the following definitions, it is important to see that 0# < " < 90# " lies in the first quadrant) and that for such angles the value of each trigonometric function is positive. Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions Let be an acute angle of a right triangle. The six trigonometric functions of the angle are defined as follows. (Note that the functions in the second row are the reciprocals of the corresponding functions in the first row.) sin opp hyp cos adj hyp tan opp adj csc hyp opp sec hyp adj cot adj opp The abbreviations opp, adj, and hyp represent the lengths of the three sides of a right triangle. opp the length of the side opposite adj the length of the side adjacent to hyp the length of the hypotenuse 300 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 1 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions ote n us e Use the triangle in Figure 4.27 to find the values of the six trigonometric functions of . Solution Hy p 4 By the Pythagorean Theorem, hyp2 opp2 adj2, it follows that hyp 42 32 θ 25 3 FIGURE 5. 4.27 So, the six trigonometric functions of opp 4 hyp 5 csc hyp 5 opp 4 cos adj 3 hyp 5 sec hyp 5 adj 3 tan opp 4 adj 3 cot adj 3 . opp 4 sin You can review the Pythagorean Theorem in Section 1.1. HISTORICAL NOTE Georg Joachim Rhaeticus (1514–1574) was the leading Teutonic mathematical astronomer of the 16th century. He was the first to define the trigonometric functions as ratios of the sides of a right triangle. are Now try Exercise 7. In Example 1, you were given the lengths of two sides of the right triangle, but not the angle . Often, you will be asked to find the trigonometric functions of a given acute angle . To do this, construct a right triangle having as one of its angles. Example 2 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 45 Find the values of sin 45", cos 45", and tan 45". Solution 45° 2 1 Construct a right triangle having 45" as one of its acute angles, as shown in Figure 4.28. Choose the length of the adjacent side to be 1. From geometry, you know that the other acute angle is also 45". So, the triangle is isosceles and the length of the opposite side is also 1. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, you find the length of the hypotenuse to be 2. sin 45" 2 1 opp hyp 2 2 cos 45" 2 adj 1 hyp 2 2 tan 45" opp 1 1 adj 1 45° 1 FIGURE 4.28 Now try Exercise 23. Section 4.3 Example 3 Because the angles 30", 45", and 60" 6, 4, and 3 occur frequently in trigonometry, you should learn to construct the triangles shown in Figures 4.28 and 4.29. Right Triangle Trigonometry 301 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 30 and 60 Use the equilateral triangle shown in Figure 4.29 to find the values of sin 60", cos 60", sin 30", and cos 30". 30° 2 2 3 60° 1 FIGURE 1 4.29 Solution T E C H N O LO G Y You can use a calculator to convert the answers in Example 3 to decimals. However, the radical form is the exact value and in most cases, the exact value is preferred. Use the Pythagorean Theorem and the equilateral triangle in Figure 4.29 to verify the lengths of the sides shown in the figure. For 60", you have adj 1, opp 3, and hyp 2. So, sin 60" For opp 3 hyp 2 cos 60" and adj 1 . hyp 2 30", adj 3, opp 1, and hyp 2. So, sin 30" opp 1 hyp 2 cos 30" and 3 adj . hyp 2 Now try Exercise 27. Sines, Cosines, and Tangents of Special Angles sin 30" sin 1 6 2 cos 30" cos 3 6 2 tan 30" tan 3 6 3 sin 45" sin 2 4 2 cos 45" cos 2 4 2 tan 45" tan 1 4 sin 60" sin 3 3 2 cos 60" cos 1 3 2 tan 60" tan 3 3 1 In the box, note that sin 30" 2 cos 60". This occurs because 30" and 60" are complementary angles. In general, it can be shown from the right triangle definitions that cofunctions of complementary angles are equal. That is, if is an acute angle, the following relationships are true. sin90" cos cos90" sin tan90" cot cot90" tan sec90" csc csc90" sec 302 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Trigonometric Identities In trigonometry, a great deal of time is spent studying relationships between trigonometric functions (identities). Fundamental Trigonometric Identities Reciprocal Identities sin 1 csc cos 1 sec tan 1 cot csc 1 sin sec 1 cos cot 1 tan cot cos sin Quotient Identities tan sin cos Pythagorean Identities sin2 cos2 1 1 tan2 sec2 1 cot2 csc2 Note that sin2 Example 4 represents sin 2, cos2 represents cos 2, and so on. Applying Trigonometric Identities Let be an acute angle such that sin (b) tan using trigonometric identities. 0.6. Find the values of (a) cos and Solution a. To find the value of cos , use the Pythagorean identity sin2 cos2 1. So, you have 0.6 2 cos2 1 Substitute 0.6 for sin . cos2 1 0.6 2 0.64 cos 0.64 0.8. Subtract 0.62 from each side. Extract the positive square root. b. Now, knowing the sine and cosine of , you can find the tangent of tan 1 0.6 sin cos 0.6 0.8 to be 0.75. θ 0.8 FIGURE 4.30 Use the definitions of cos these results. and tan , and the triangle shown in Figure 4.30, to check Now try Exercise 33. Section 4.3 Example 5 Right Triangle Trigonometry 303 Applying Trigonometric Identities 3. Find the values of (a) cot Let be an acute angle such that tan (b) sec using trigonometric identities. and Solution a. cot 1 tan cot 1 3 b. sec2 1 tan2 10 3 Pythagorean identity sec2 1 32 sec2 10 10 sec Use the definitions of cot these results. θ FIGURE Reciprocal identity 1 4.31 and sec , and the triangle shown in Figure 4.31, to check Now try Exercise 35. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions with a Calculator You can also use the reciprocal identities for sine, cosine, and tangent to evaluate the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions with a calculator. For instance, you could use the following keystroke sequence to evaluate sec 28". 1 % COS 28 ENTER The calculator should display 1.1325701. To use a calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions of angles measured in degrees, first set the calculator to degree mode and then proceed as demonstrated in Section 4.2. For instance, you can find values of cos 28" and sec 28" as follows. Function a. cos 28" b. sec 28" Mode Calculator Keystrokes Degree Degree COS 28 COS Display ENTER 28 x 1 ENTER 0.8829476 1.1325701 Throughout this text, angles are assumed to be measured in radians unless noted otherwise. For example, sin 1 means the sine of 1 radian and sin 1" means the sine of 1 degree. Example 6 Using a Calculator Use a calculator to evaluate sec5" 40# 12$ . Solution 1 1 Begin by converting to decimal degree form. [Recall that 1# 60 1" and 1$ 3600 1". 5" 40# 12$ 5" 60" 3600" 5.67" 40 12 Then, use a calculator to evaluate sec 5.67". Function sec5" 40# 12$ sec 5.67" Calculator Keystrokes COS Now try Exercise 51. 5.67 x 1 Display ENTER 1.0049166 304 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Applications Involving Right Triangles Object Observer Observer Angle of elevation Horizontal Horizontal Angle of depression Many applications of trigonometry involve a process called solving right triangles. In this type of application, you are usually given one side of a right triangle and one of the acute angles and are asked to find one of the other sides, or you are given two sides and are asked to find one of the acute angles. In Example 7, the angle you are given is the angle of elevation, which represents the angle from the horizontal upward to an object. For objects that lie below the horizontal, it is common to use the term angle of depression, as shown in Figure 4.32. Example 7 Object FIGURE 4.32 Using Trigonometry to Solve a Right Triangle A surveyor is standing 115 feet from the base of the Washington Monument, as shown in Figure 4.33. The surveyor measures the angle of elevation to the top of the monument as 78.3". How tall is the Washington Monument? Solution From Figure 4.33, you can see that y Angle of elevation 78.3° x = 115 ft FIGURE tan 78.3" opp y adj x where x 115 and y is the height of the monument. So, the height of the Washington Monument is y x tan 78.3" 1154.82882 555 feet. Not drawn to scale Now try Exercise 67. 4.33 Example 8 Using Trigonometry to Solve a Right Triangle A historic lighthouse is 200 yards from a bike path along the edge of a lake. A walkway to the lighthouse is 400 yards long. Find the acute angle between the bike path and the walkway, as illustrated in Figure 4.34. θ 200 yd FIGURE 400 yd 4.34 Solution From Figure 4.34, you can see that the sine of the angle sin opp 200 1 . hyp 400 2 Now you should recognize that 30". Now try Exercise 69. is Section 4.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 305 By now you are able to recognize that 30" is the acute angle that satisfies the equation sin 12. Suppose, however, that you were given the equation sin 0.6 and were asked to find the acute angle . Because sin 30" 1 2 0.5000 and sin 45" 1 2 0.7071 you might guess that lies somewhere between 30" and 45". In a later section, you will study a method by which a more precise value of can be determined. Example 9 Solving a Right Triangle Find the length c of the skateboard ramp shown in Figure 4.35. c 18.4° FIGURE 4.35 Solution From Figure 4.35, you can see that sin 18.4" opp hyp 4 . c So, the length of the skateboard ramp is c 4 sin 18.4" 4 0.3156 12.7 feet. Now try Exercise 71. 4 ft 306 Chapter 4 Trigonometry EXERCISES 4.3 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY 1. Match the trigonometric function with its right triangle definition. (a) Sine (b) Cosine (c) Tangent (d) Cosecant (i) hypotenuse adjacent (ii) adjacent opposite hypotenuse opposite (iii) (iv) (e) Secant adjacent hypotenuse (v) (f) Cotangent opposite hypotenuse (vi) opposite adjacent In Exercises 2–4, fill in the blanks. 2. Relative to the angle , the three sides of a right triangle are the ________ side, the ________ side, and the ________. 3. Cofunctions of ________ angles are equal. 4. An angle that measures from the horizontal upward to an object is called the angle of ________, whereas an angle that measures from the horizontal downward to an object is called the angle of ________. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 5–8, find the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle ! shown in the figure. (Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the third side of the triangle.) 5. 6. 13 6 5 θ θ 8 7. 41 θ 9 8. θ 4 In Exercises 9 –12, find the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle ! for each of the two triangles. Explain why the function values are the same. 10. 1.25 8 θ 1 θ 5 15 θ 7.5 11. 3 4 12. 1 θ 4 sec 2 14. 16. 18. 20. 3 1 5 sin cot 3 1 45" 23. sec 4 24. tan 3 25. cot 6 4 29. cot 30. tan 6 4 tan 5 17 sec 7 csc 9 22. cos 28. sin 3 θ 5 6 30" 27. csc 2 2 cos Function 21. sin (deg) θ θ 6 3 tan 26. csc θ 4 13. 15. 17. 19. In Exercises 21–30, construct an appropriate triangle to complete the table. !0 & ! & 90 , 0 & ! & " / 2" 4 9. In Exercises 13–20, sketch a right triangle corresponding to the trigonometric function of the acute angle !. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the third side and then find the other five trigonometric functions of !. (rad) Function Value 3 3 2 1 3 3 Section 4.3 In Exercises 31–36, use the given function value(s), and trigonometric identities (including the cofunction identities), to find the indicated trigonometric functions. 31. sin 60" 3 2 1 cos 60" 2 (b) cos 30" (d) cot 60" , (a) sin 30" (c) tan 60" 1 32. sin 30" , 2 tan 30" 3 3 (a) csc 30" (c) cos 30" 1 33. cos 3 (b) cot 60" (d) cot 30" (a) sin (c) sec 34. sec 5 (a) cos (c) cot90" 35. cot ) 5 (a) tan ) (c) cot90" ) (b) tan (d) csc90" 36. cos ( 48. (a) tan 23.5" 49. (a) sin 16.35" (b) cot 66.5" (b) csc 16.35" 50. (a) cot 79.56" 51. (a) cos 4" 50# 15$ 52. (a) sec 42" 12# (b) sec 79.56" (b) sec 4" 50# 15$ (b) csc 48" 7# 53. (a) cot 11" 15# 54. (a) sec 56" 8# 10$ 55. (a) csc 32" 40# 3$ (b) tan 11" 15# (b) cos 56" 8# 10$ (b) tan 44" 28# 16$ 56. (a) sec 95 (b) csc ) (d) cos ) 7 57. (a) sin 61. (a) csc 62. (a) cot (b) sin ( (d) sin90" ( In Exercises 37– 46, use trigonometric identities to transform the left side of the equation into the right side !0 < ! < " / 2". 37. tan cot 1 38. cos sec 1 39. tan ) cos ) sin ) 1 2 2 2 59. (a) sec 2 60. (a) tan 3 4 (a) sec ( (c) cot ( ' 20 32" (b) cot 95 ' 30 32" In Exercises 57– 62, find the values of ! in degrees !0 < ! < 90 " and radians !0 < ! < " / 2" without the aid of a calculator. 58. (a) cos (b) cot (d) sin 307 Right Triangle Trigonometry 23 3 3 3 (b) csc 2 (b) tan 1 (b) cot 1 (b) cos 12 2 (b) sin (b) sec 2 2 In Exercises 63–66, solve for x, y, or r as indicated. 63. Solve for y. 64. Solve for x. 30 18 y 30° x 60° 65. Solve for x. 40. cot ) sin ) cos ) 66. Solve for r. 41. 1 sin 1 sin cos2 42. 1 cos 1 cos sin2 43. sec tan sec tan 1 44. sin2 cos2 2 sin2 1 sin cos csc sec 45. cos sin tan ( cot ( csc2 ( 46. tan ( In Exercises 47–56, use a calculator to evaluate each function. Round your answers to four decimal places. (Be sure the calculator is in the correct angle mode.) 47. (a) sin 10" (b) cos 80" r 32 60° x 20 45° 67. EMPIRE STATE BUILDING You are standing 45 meters from the base of the Empire State Building. You estimate that the angle of elevation to the top of the 86th floor (the observatory) is 82". If the total height of the building is another 123 meters above the 86th floor, what is the approximate height of the building? One of your friends is on the 86th floor. What is the distance between you and your friend? 308 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 68. HEIGHT A six-foot person walks from the base of a broadcasting tower directly toward the tip of the shadow cast by the tower. When the person is 132 feet from the tower and 3 feet from the tip of the shadow, the person’s shadow starts to appear beyond the tower’s shadow. (a) Draw a right triangle that gives a visual representation of the problem. Show the known quantities of the triangle and use a variable to indicate the height of the tower. (b) Use a trigonometric function to write an equation involving the unknown quantity. (c) What is the height of the tower? 69. ANGLE OF ELEVATION You are skiing down a mountain with a vertical height of 1500 feet. The distance from the top of the mountain to the base is 3000 feet. What is the angle of elevation from the base to the top of the mountain? 70. WIDTH OF A RIVER A biologist wants to know the width w of a river so that instruments for studying the pollutants in the water can be set properly. From point A, the biologist walks downstream 100 feet and sights to point C (see figure). From this sighting, it is determined that 54". How wide is the river? 72. HEIGHT OF A MOUNTAIN In traveling across flat land, you notice a mountain directly in front of you. Its angle of elevation (to the peak) is 3.5". After you drive 13 miles closer to the mountain, the angle of elevation is 9". Approximate the height of the mountain. 3.5° 13 mi d y 60 56 3° (x2, y2) 15 cm (x1, y1) 30° 30° 56 60 w FIGURE FOR θ = 54° A 100 ft 71. LENGTH A guy wire runs from the ground to a cell tower. The wire is attached to the cell tower 150 feet above the ground. The angle formed between the wire and the ground is 43" (see figure). Not drawn to scale 73. MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS A steel plate has the form of one-fourth of a circle with a radius of 60 centimeters. Two two-centimeter holes are to be drilled in the plate positioned as shown in the figure. Find the coordinates of the center of each hole. 30° C 9° 73 5 cm x FIGURE FOR 74. MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS A tapered shaft has a diameter of 5 centimeters at the small end and is 15 centimeters long (see figure). The taper is 3". Find the diameter d of the large end of the shaft. 75. GEOMETRY Use a compass to sketch a quarter of a circle of radius 10 centimeters. Using a protractor, construct an angle of 20" in standard position (see figure). Drop a perpendicular line from the point of intersection of the terminal side of the angle and the arc of the circle. By actual measurement, calculate the coordinates x, y of the point of intersection and use these measurements to approximate the six trigonometric functions of a 20" angle. y 150 ft 10 (x, y) θ = 43° (a) How long is the guy wire? (b) How far from the base of the tower is the guy wire anchored to the ground? 74 m 10 c 20° 10 x Section 4.3 76. HEIGHT A 20-meter line is used to tether a helium-filled balloon. Because of a breeze, the line makes an angle of approximately 85" with the ground. (a) Draw a right triangle that gives a visual representation of the problem. Show the known quantities of the triangle and use a variable to indicate the height of the balloon. (b) Use a trigonometric function to write an equation involving the unknown quantity. (c) What is the height of the balloon? (d) The breeze becomes stronger and the angle the balloon makes with the ground decreases. How does this affect the triangle you drew in part (a)? (e) Complete the table, which shows the heights (in meters) of the balloon for decreasing angle measures . Angle, 80" 70" 60" 50" 40" 30" 20" 10" Height Angle, Height (f) As the angle the balloon makes with the ground approaches 0", how does this affect the height of the balloon? Draw a right triangle to explain your reasoning. EXPLORATION Right Triangle Trigonometry 309 84. THINK ABOUT IT (a) Complete the table. 0" 18" 36" 54" 72" 90" sin cos (b) Discuss the behavior of the sine function for in the range from 0" to 90". (c) Discuss the behavior of the cosine function for in the range from 0" to 90". (d) Use the definitions of the sine and cosine functions to explain the results of parts (b) and (c). 85. WRITING In right triangle trigonometry, explain why sin 30" 12 regardless of the size of the triangle. 86. GEOMETRY Use the equilateral triangle shown in Figure 4.29 and similar triangles to verify the points in Figure 4.23 (in Section 4.2) that do not lie on the axes. 87. THINK ABOUT IT You are given only the value tan . Is it possible to find the value of sec without finding the measure of ? Explain. 88. CAPSTONE The Johnstown Inclined Plane in Pennsylvania is one of the longest and steepest hoists in the world. The railway cars travel a distance of 896.5 feet at an angle of approximately 35.4", rising to a height of 1693.5 feet above sea level. TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 77–82, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 77. sin 60" csc 60" 1 78. sec 30" csc 60" 79. sin 45" cos 45" 1 80. cot2 10" csc2 10" 1 sin 60" 81. 82. tan5"2 tan2 5" sin 2" sin 30" 83. THINK ABOUT IT (a) Complete the table. 0.1 896.5 ft 1693.5 feet above sea level 35.4° Not drawn to scale (a) Find the vertical rise of the inclined plane. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 sin (b) Is or sin greater for in the interval 0, 0.5? (c) As approaches 0, how do and sin compare? Explain. (b) Find the elevation of the lower end of the inclined plane. (c) The cars move up the mountain at a rate of 300 feet per minute. Find the rate at which they rise vertically. 310 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 4.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANY ANGLE What you should learn • Evaluate trigonometric functions of any angle. • Find reference angles. • Evaluate trigonometric functions of real numbers. Why you should learn it You can use trigonometric functions to model and solve real-life problems. For instance, in Exercise 99 on page 318, you can use trigonometric functions to model the monthly normal temperatures in New York City and Fairbanks, Alaska. Introduction In Section 4.3, the definitions of trigonometric functions were restricted to acute angles. In this section, the definitions are extended to cover any angle. If is an acute angle, these definitions coincide with those given in the preceding section. Definitions of Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle Let be an angle in standard position with x, y a point on the terminal side of and r x2 y2 0. y r sin tan y , x sec r , x x r y cos x0 cot x , y0 y x0 csc r , y (x, y) r θ y0 x Because r x 2 y 2 cannot be zero, it follows that the sine and cosine functions are defined for any real value of . However, if x 0, the tangent and secant of are undefined. For example, the tangent of 90" is undefined. Similarly, if y 0, the cotangent and cosecant of are undefined. James Urbach/SuperStock Example 1 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Let 3, 4 be a point on the terminal side of . Find the sine, cosine, and tangent of . Solution Referring to Figure 4.36, you can see that x 3, y 4, and r x 2 y 2 3 2 42 25 5. So, you have the following. sin y 4 r 5 cos x 3 r 5 tan y (−3, 4) 4 3 r 2 1 The formula r x2 y2 is a result of the Distance Formula. You can review the Distance Formula in Section 1.1. θ x −3 FIGURE Now try Exercise 9. −2 4.36 −1 1 y 4 x 3 Section 4.4 y π <θ<π 2 x<0 y>0 x x>0 y<0 π < θ < 3π 2 sin θ : + cos θ : − tan θ : − sin θ : + cos θ : + tan θ : + 5 4 and cos Quadrant IV sin θ : − cos θ : − tan θ : + sin θ : − cos θ : + tan θ : − FIGURE > 0, find sin and sec . Note that lies in Quadrant IV because that is the only quadrant in which the tangent is negative and the cosine is positive. Moreover, using y x tan x Quadrant III Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Solution y Quadrant I Example 2 Given tan 3π < θ < 2π 2 Quadrant II 311 The signs of the trigonometric functions in the four quadrants can be determined from the definitions of the functions. For instance, because cos xr, it follows that cos is positive wherever x > 0, which is in Quadrants I and IV. (Remember, r is always positive.) In a similar manner, you can verify the results shown in Figure 4.37. 0<θ < π 2 x>0 y>0 x<0 y<0 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 5 4 and the fact that y is negative in Quadrant IV, you can let y 5 and x 4. So, r 16 25 41 and you have sin y 5 41 r 4.37 0.7809 sec 41 r x 4 1.6008. Now try Exercise 23. Example 3 Trigonometric Functions of Quadrant Angles 3 Evaluate the cosine and tangent functions at the four quadrant angles 0, , , and . 2 2 Solution To begin, choose a point on the terminal side of each angle, as shown in Figure 4.38. For each of the four points, r 1, and you have the following. y π 2 cos 0 (0, 1) cos (−1, 0) (1, 0) π 0 3π 2 FIGURE 4.38 (0, −1) x 1 1 r 1 x 0 0 2 r 1 tan 0 tan y 0 0 x 1 y 1 ⇒ undefined 2 x 0 x, y 1, 0 x, y 0, 1 x cos cos x 1 1 r 1 3 x 0 0 2 r 1 tan tan Now try Exercise 37. 0 y 0 x 1 3 y 1 ⇒ undefined 2 x 0 x, y 1, 0 x, y 0, 1 312 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Reference Angles The values of the trigonometric functions of angles greater than 90" (or less than 0") can be determined from their values at corresponding acute angles called reference angles. Definition of Reference Angle Let be an angle in standard position. Its reference angle is the acute angle # formed by the terminal side of and the horizontal axis. Figure 4.39 shows the reference angles for in Quadrants II, III, and IV. Quadrant II Reference angle: θ ′ θ Reference angle: θ ′ θ ′ = π − θ (radians) θ ′ = 180° − θ (degrees) FIGURE θ Quadrant III θ ′ = θ − π (radians) θ ′ = θ − 180° (degrees) θ Reference angle: θ ′ Quadrant IV θ ′ = 2π − θ (radians) θ ′ = 360° − θ (degrees) 4.39 y Example 4 θ = 300° Finding Reference Angles Find the reference angle #. x θ ′ = 60° a. 300" b. 2.3 c. 135" Solution FIGURE 4.40 a. Because 300" lies in Quadrant IV, the angle it makes with the x-axis is # 360" 300" y 60". Figure 4.40 shows the angle θ = 2.3 θ ′ = π − 2.3 x Degrees 300" and its reference angle # 60". b. Because 2.3 lies between 2 1.5708 and Quadrant II and its reference angle is 3.1416, it follows that it is in # 2.3 FIGURE 4.41 0.8416. y 225° and −135° 225° are coterminal. x θ ′ = 45° θ = −135° Figure 4.41 shows the angle 2.3 and its reference angle # 2.3. c. First, determine that 135" is coterminal with 225", which lies in Quadrant III. So, the reference angle is # 225" 180" 45". Figure 4.42 shows the angle FIGURE 4.42 Radians Degrees 135" and its reference angle # 45". Now try Exercise 45. Section 4.4 y Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 313 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers (x, y) To see how a reference angle is used to evaluate a trigonometric function, consider the point x, y on the terminal side of , as shown in Figure 4.43. By definition, you know that r= p hy opp sin y r and tan y . x For the right triangle with acute angle # and sides of lengths x and y , you have θ θ′ x adj sin # y opp hyp r tan # y opp . adj x and opp y , adj x FIGURE 4.43 So, it follows that sin and sin # are equal, except possibly in sign. The same is true for tan and tan # and for the other four trigonometric functions. In all cases, the sign of the function value can be determined by the quadrant in which lies. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle To find the value of a trigonometric function of any angle : 1. Determine the function value for the associated reference angle #. 2. Depending on the quadrant in which function value. Learning the table of values at the right is worth the effort because doing so will increase both your efficiency and your confidence. Here is a pattern for the sine function that may help you remember the values. 0" sin 30" 45" 60" 90" By using reference angles and the special angles discussed in the preceding section, you can greatly extend the scope of exact trigonometric values. For instance, knowing the function values of 30" means that you know the function values of all angles for which 30" is a reference angle. For convenience, the table below shows the exact values of the trigonometric functions of special angles and quadrant angles. Trigonometric Values of Common Angles (degrees) 0" 30" 45" 60" 90" 180" 270" 0 6 4 3 2 3 2 sin 0 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 cos 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 tan 0 1 3 Undef. 0 Undef. (radians) 0 1 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 Reverse the order to get cosine values of the same angles. lies, affix the appropriate sign to the 3 3 314 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 5 Using Reference Angles Evaluate each trigonometric function. a. cos 4 3 b. tan210" c. csc 11 4 Solution 43 lies in Quadrant III, the reference angle is a. Because # 4 3 3 as shown in Figure 6.41. Moreover, the cosine is negative in Quadrant III, so cos 4 cos 3 3 1 . 2 b. Because 210" 360" 150", it follows that 210" is coterminal with the second-quadrant angle 150". So, the reference angle is # 180" 150" 30", as shown in Figure 4.45. Finally, because the tangent is negative in Quadrant II, you have tan210" tan 30" 3 3 . c. Because 114 2 34, it follows that 114 is coterminal with the second-quadrant angle 34. So, the reference angle is # 34 4, as shown in Figure 4.46. Because the cosecant is positive in Quadrant II, you have csc 11 csc 4 4 1 sin4 2. y y y θ ′ = 30° θ = 4π 3 x x θ′ = π 3 FIGURE 4.44 θ′ = π 4 θ = −210° FIGURE Now try Exercise 59. 4.45 FIGURE 4.46 θ = 11π 4 x Section 4.4 Example 6 315 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle Using Trigonometric Identities 13. Find (a) cos Let be an angle in Quadrant II such that sin using trigonometric identities. and (b) tan by Solution a. Using the Pythagorean identity sin2 cos2 1, you obtain 13 2 cos2 cos 2 1 Because cos 1 8 . 9 9 < 0 in Quadrant II, you can use the negative root to obtain cos Substitute 13 for sin . 1 8 9 22 . 3 b. Using the trigonometric identity tan tan sin , you obtain cos 13 223 Substitute for sin and cos . 1 22 2 4 . Now try Exercise 69. You can use a calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions, as shown in the next example. Example 7 Using a Calculator Use a calculator to evaluate each trigonometric function. a. cot 410" b. sin7 9 c. sec Solution Function a. cot 410" b. sin7 c. sec 9 Mode Calculator Keystrokes Degree Radian SIN Radian TAN COS Now try Exercise 79. 410 7 x 1 Display ENTER ENTER 9 x 1 ENTER 0.8390996 0.6569866 1.0641778 316 Chapter 4 Trigonometry EXERCISES 4.4 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. In Exercises 1–6, let ! be an angle in standard position, with x, y! a point on the terminal side of ! and r " x2 1 y2 # 0. r ________ y 1. sin ________ 2. 3. tan ________ 4. sec 5. x ________ r 6. ________ x ________ y 7. Because r x2 y2 cannot be ________, the sine and cosine functions are ________ for any real value of . 8. The acute positive angle that is formed by the terminal side of the angle and the horizontal axis is called the ________ angle of and is denoted by #. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 9–12, determine the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle !. y 9. (a) y (b) (4, 3) θ θ x x In Exercises 19–22, state the quadrant in which ! lies. 19. sin 20. sin 21. sin > 0 and cos > 0 < 0 and cos < 0 > 0 and cos < 0 22. sec > 0 and cot < 0 (− 8, 15) In Exercises 23–32, find the values of the six trigonometric functions of ! with the given constraint. y 10. (a) y (b) Function Value 15 23. tan 8 θ θ x x (−12, −5) (1, − 1) y 11. (a) 4 θ θ x x (− 3, −1) 12. (a) (4, − 1) y y (b) θ (3, 1) θ x x (− 4, 4) In Exercises 13–18, the point is on the terminal side of an angle in standard position. Determine the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle. 13. 5, 12 15. 5, 2 17. 5.4, 7.2 14. 8, 15 16. 4, 10 18. 32, 74 1 3 tan 26. cos 5 27. cot 3 28. csc 4 y (b) 8 24. cos 17 3 25. sin 5 Constraint sin > 0 29. sec 2 30. sin 0 31. cot is undefined. 32. tan is undefined. < 0 lies in Quadrant II. lies in Quadrant III. cos > 0 cot < 0 sin < 0 sec 1 2 ! ! 32 ! ! 2 In Exercises 33–36, the terminal side of ! lies on the given line in the specified quadrant. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of ! by finding a point on the line. Line 33. y x 1 34. y 3x 35. 2x y 0 Quadrant 36. 4x 3y 0 IV II III III Section 4.4 In Exercises 37–44, evaluate the trigonometric function of the quadrant angle. 37. sin 38. csc 3 2 39. sec 3 2 40. sec 41. sin 2 42. cot 43. csc 44. cot 2 In Exercises 45–52, find the reference angle !&, and sketch ! and !& in standard position. 45. 47. 49. 51. 160$ 125$ 46. 48. 2 3 4.8 50. 52. 309$ 215$ 7 6 11.6 In Exercises 53–68, evaluate the sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle without using a calculator. 53. 225$ 54. 300$ 55. 750$ 57. 150$ 2 59. 3 56. 405$ 58. 840$ 3 60. 4 5 61. 4 7 62. 6 6 9 65. 4 67. 68. 75. sin 10$ 77. cos110$ 79. tan 304$ 81. sec 72$ 76. sec 225$ 78. csc330$ 80. cot 178$ 82. tan188$ 83. tan 4.5 85. tan 9 84. cot 1.35 87. sin0.65 88. sec 0.29 9 86. tan 11 89. cot 8 90. csc 1 91. (a) sin 2 92. (a) cos 93. (a) csc 23 3 2 2 Quadrant 72. csc 2 5 73. cos 8 9 74. sec 4 IV I III IV II III 1 (b) sin 2 (b) cos (b) cot 1 2 2 (b) sec 2 (b) cot 3 3 (b) sin 2 3 2 97. DISTANCE An airplane, flying at an altitude of 6 miles, is on a flight path that passes directly over an observer (see figure). If is the angle of elevation from the observer to the plane, find the distance d from the observer to the plane when (a) 30$, (b) 90$, and (c) 120$. 23 4 d In Exercises 69–74, find the indicated trigonometric value in the specified quadrant. Function 3 69. sin 5 70. cot 3 3 71. tan 2 15 14 In Exercises 91–96, find two solutions of the equation. Give your answers in degrees 0% ! ! < 360%! and in radians 0 ! ! < 2$!. Do not use a calculator. 96. (a) sin 2 10 66. 3 3 2 In Exercises 75–90, use a calculator to evaluate the trigonometric function. Round your answer to four decimal places. (Be sure the calculator is set in the correct angle mode.) 94. (a) sec 2 95. (a) tan 1 64. 63. 317 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle Trigonometric Value cos sin sec cot sec tan 6 mi θ Not drawn to scale 98. HARMONIC MOTION The displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating weight suspended by a spring is given by yt 2 cos 6t, where y is the displacement (in centimeters) and t is the time (in seconds). Find the displacement when (a) t 0, (b) t 14, and (c) t 12. 318 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 99. DATA ANALYSIS: METEOROLOGY The table shows the monthly normal temperatures (in degrees Fahrenheit) for selected months in New York City N and Fairbanks, Alaska F. (Source: National Climatic Data Center) Month New York City, N Fairbanks, F January April July October December 33 52 77 58 38 10 32 62 24 6 (a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to find a model of the form y a sinbt c d for each city. Let t represent the month, with t 1 corresponding to January. (b) Use the models from part (a) to find the monthly normal temperatures for the two cities in February, March, May, June, August, September, and November. (c) Compare the models for the two cities. 100. SALES A company that produces snowboards, which are seasonal products, forecasts monthly sales over the next 2 years to be S 23.1 0.442t 4.3 cost6, where S is measured in thousands of units and t is the time in months, with t 1 representing January 2010. Predict sales for each of the following months. (a) February 2010 (b) February 2011 (c) June 2010 (d) June 2011 101. HARMONIC MOTION The displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating weight suspended by a spring and subject to the damping effect of friction is given by y t 2et cos 6t, where y is the displacement (in centimeters) and t is the time (in seconds). Find the displacement when (a) t 0, 1 1 (b) t 4, and (c) t 2. 102. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS The current I (in amperes) when 100 volts is applied to a circuit is given by I 5e2t sin t, where t is the time (in seconds) after the voltage is applied. Approximate the current at t 0.7 second after the voltage is applied. EXPLORATION TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 103 and 104, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 103. In each of the four quadrants, the signs of the secant function and sine function will be the same. 104. To find the reference angle for an angle (given in degrees), find the integer n such that 0 ! 360$n ! 360$. The difference 360$n is the reference angle. 105. WRITING Consider an angle in standard position with r 12 centimeters, as shown in the figure. Write a short paragraph describing the changes in the values of x, y, sin , cos , and tan as increases continuously from 0$ to 90$. y (x, y) 12 cm θ x 106. CAPSTONE Write a short paper in your own words explaining to a classmate how to evaluate the six trigonometric functions of any angle in standard position. Include an explanation of reference angles and how to use them, the signs of the functions in each of the four quadrants, and the trigonometric values of common angles. Be sure to include figures or diagrams in your paper. 107. THINK ABOUT IT The figure shows point Px, y on a unit circle and right triangle OAP. y P(x, y) t r θ O A x (a) Find sin t and cos t using the unit circle definitions of sine and cosine (from Section 4.2). (b) What is the value of r? Explain. (c) Use the definitions of sine and cosine given in this section to find sin and cos . Write your answers in terms of x and y. (d) Based on your answers to parts (a) and (c), what can you conclude? Section 4.5 319 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 4.5 GRAPHS OF SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS What you should learn • Sketch the graphs of basic sine and cosine functions. • Use amplitude and period to help sketch the graphs of sine and cosine functions. • Sketch translations of the graphs of sine and cosine functions. • Use sine and cosine functions to model real-life data. Why you should learn it Basic Sine and Cosine Curves In this section, you will study techniques for sketching the graphs of the sine and cosine functions. The graph of the sine function is a sine curve. In Figure 4.47, the black portion of the graph represents one period of the function and is called one cycle of the sine curve. The gray portion of the graph indicates that the basic sine curve repeats indefinitely in the positive and negative directions. The graph of the cosine function is shown in Figure 4.48. Recall from Section 4.2 that the domain of the sine and cosine functions is the set of all real numbers. Moreover, the range of each function is the interval 1, 1, and each function has a period of 2. Do you see how this information is consistent with the basic graphs shown in Figures 4.47 and 4.48? Sine and cosine functions are often used in scientific calculations. For instance, in Exercise 87 on page 328, you can use a trigonometric function to model the airflow of your respiratory cycle. y y = sin x 1 Range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 x − 3π 2 −π −π 2 π 2 π 3π 2 2π 5π 2 −1 Period: 2π FIGURE 4.47 © Karl Weatherly/Corbis y y = cos x 1 Range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 x − 3π 2 −π π 2 π 3π 2 2π 5π 2 −1 Period: 2 π FIGURE 4.48 Note in Figures 4.47 and 4.48 that the sine curve is symmetric with respect to the origin, whereas the cosine curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. These properties of symmetry follow from the fact that the sine function is odd and the cosine function is even. 320 Chapter 4 Trigonometry To sketch the graphs of the basic sine and cosine functions by hand, it helps to note five key points in one period of each graph: the intercepts, maximum points, and minimum points (see Figure 4.49). y y Maximum Intercept Minimum π,1 Intercept y = sin x 2 ( ) (π , 0) (0, 0) Quarter period (32π , −1) Half period Period: 2π FIGURE Intercept Minimum Maximum (0, 1) y = cos x Intercept Three-quarter period (2π, 0) Full period Quarter period (2π, 1) ( 32π , 0) ( π2 , 0) x Intercept Maximum x Full period (π , −1) Period: 2π Half period Three-quarter period 4.49 Example 1 Using Key Points to Sketch a Sine Curve Sketch the graph of y 2 sin x on the interval , 4. Solution Note that y 2 sin x 2sin x indicates that the y-values for the key points will have twice the magnitude of those on the graph of y sin x. Divide the period 2 into four equal parts to get the key points for y 2 sin x. Intercept Maximum 0, 0, ,2 , 2 Intercept , 0, Minimum Intercept 3 , 2 , and 2, 0 2 By connecting these key points with a smooth curve and extending the curve in both directions over the interval , 4, you obtain the graph shown in Figure 4.50. y T E C H N O LO G Y 3 When using a graphing utility to graph trigonometric functions, pay special attention to the viewing window you use. For instance, try graphing y " [sin 10x!]/10 in the standard viewing window in radian mode. What do you observe? Use the zoom feature to find a viewing window that displays a good view of the graph. 2 y = 2 sin x 1 x − π2 y = sin x −2 FIGURE 4.50 Now try Exercise 39. 3π 2 5π 2 7π 2 Section 4.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 321 Amplitude and Period In the remainder of this section you will study the graphic effect of each of the constants a, b, c, and d in equations of the forms y d a sinbx c and y d a cosbx c. A quick review of the transformations you studied in Section 1.7 should help in this investigation. The constant factor a in y a sin x acts as a scaling factor—a vertical stretch or vertical shrink of the basic sine curve. If a > 1, the basic sine curve is stretched, and if a < 1, the basic sine curve is shrunk. The result is that the graph of y a sin x ranges between a and a instead of between 1 and 1. The absolute value of a is the amplitude of the function y a sin x. The range of the function y a sin x for a > 0 is a ! y ! a. Definition of Amplitude of Sine and Cosine Curves The amplitude of y a sin x and y a cos x represents half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of the function and is given by Amplitude a . Example 2 Scaling: Vertical Shrinking and Stretching On the same coordinate axes, sketch the graph of each function. a. y 1 cos x 2 b. y 3 cos x Solution y y = 3 cos x 3 y = cos x a. Because the amplitude of y 12 cos x is 12, the maximum value is 12 and the minimum 1 value is 2. Divide one cycle, 0 ! x ! 2, into four equal parts to get the key points Maximum Intercept x 2π −2 FIGURE 4.51 2 , 0, , 21, 32, 0, Maximum and 2, 12. b. A similar analysis shows that the amplitude of y 3 cos x is 3, and the key points are −1 −3 0, 21, Minimum Intercept y= 1 cos 2 x Maximum Intercept Minimum Intercept 2 , 0, 32, 0, 0, 3, , 3, Maximum and 2, 3. The graphs of these two functions are shown in Figure 4.51. Notice that the graph of y 12 cos x is a vertical shrink of the graph of y cos x and the graph of y 3 cos x is a vertical stretch of the graph of y cos x. Now try Exercise 41. 322 Chapter 4 Trigonometry You know from Section 1.7 that the graph of y f x is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph of y f x. For instance, the graph of y 3 cos x is a reflection of the graph of y 3 cos x, as shown in Figure 4.52. Because y a sin x completes one cycle from x 0 to x 2, it follows that y a sin bx completes one cycle from x 0 to x 2b. y y = −3 cos x y = 3 cos x 3 1 x −π π 2π Period of Sine and Cosine Functions Let b be a positive real number. The period of y a sin bx and y a cos bx is given by −3 FIGURE Period 4.52 2 . b Note that if 0 < b < 1, the period of y a sin bx is greater than 2 and represents a horizontal stretching of the graph of y a sin x. Similarly, if b > 1, the period of y a sin bx is less than 2 and represents a horizontal shrinking of the graph of y a sin x. If b is negative, the identities sinx sin x and cosx cos x are used to rewrite the function. Example 3 Scaling: Horizontal Stretching x Sketch the graph of y sin . 2 Solution 1 The amplitude is 1. Moreover, because b 2, the period is 2 2 1 4. b 2 Substitute for b. Now, divide the period-interval 0, 4 into four equal parts with the values , 2, and 3 to obtain the key points on the graph. In general, to divide a period-interval into four equal parts, successively add “period4,” starting with the left endpoint of the interval. For instance, for the period-interval 6, 2 of length 23, you would successively add Intercept 0, 0, Maximum , 1, Minimum Intercept 3, 1, and 4, 0 The graph is shown in Figure 4.53. y y = sin x 2 y = sin x 1 x −π 23 4 6 to get 6, 0, 6, 3, and 2 as the x-values for the key points on the graph. Intercept 2, 0, π −1 Period: 4π FIGURE 4.53 Now try Exercise 43. Section 4.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 323 Translations of Sine and Cosine Curves The constant c in the general equations y a sinbx c You can review the techniques for shifting, reflecting, and stretching graphs in Section 1.7. and y a cosbx c creates a horizontal translation (shift) of the basic sine and cosine curves. Comparing y a sin bx with y a sinbx c, you find that the graph of y a sinbx c completes one cycle from bx c 0 to bx c 2. By solving for x, you can find the interval for one cycle to be Left endpoint Right endpoint c c 2 . ! x ! b b b Period This implies that the period of y a sinbx c is 2b, and the graph of y a sin bx is shifted by an amount cb. The number cb is the phase shift. Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions The graphs of y a sinbx c and y a cosbx c have the following characteristics. (Assume b > 0.) Period Amplitude a 2 b The left and right endpoints of a one-cycle interval can be determined by solving the equations bx c 0 and bx c 2. Example 4 Horizontal Translation Analyze the graph of y 1 . sin x 2 3 Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution 1 The amplitude is 2 and the period is 2. By solving the equations x 0 3 x 2 3 x 3 and x 7 3 1 you see that the interval 3, 73 corresponds to one cycle of the graph. Dividing this interval into four equal parts produces the key points Intercept Maximum Intercept 5 1 4 ,0 , , , ,0 , 3 6 2 3 Now try Exercise 49. Use a graphing utility set in radian mode to graph y 12 sinx 3, as shown in Figure 4.54. Use the minimum, maximum, and zero or root features of the graphing utility to approximate the key points 1.05, 0, 2.62, 0.5, 4.19, 0, 5.76, 0.5, and 7.33, 0. Minimum Intercept 11 1 7 , , and ,0 . 6 2 3 − 1 π sin x − 2 3 ( ( 5 2 2 −1 FIGURE y= 4.54 324 Chapter 4 Trigonometry y = −3 cos(2 πx + 4 π) Example 5 Horizontal Translation y Sketch the graph of 3 y 3 cos2x 4. 2 Solution x −2 The amplitude is 3 and the period is 22 1. By solving the equations 1 2 x 4 0 2 x 4 x 2 −3 Period 1 FIGURE and 4.55 2 x 4 2 2 x 2 x 1 you see that the interval 2, 1 corresponds to one cycle of the graph. Dividing this interval into four equal parts produces the key points Minimum 2, 3, Intercept 7 ,0 , 4 Maximum 3 ,3 , 2 Intercept 5 ,0 , 4 Minimum and 1, 3. The graph is shown in Figure 4.55. Now try Exercise 51. The final type of transformation is the vertical translation caused by the constant d in the equations y d a sinbx c and y d a cosbx c. The shift is d units upward for d > 0 and d units downward for d < 0. In other words, the graph oscillates about the horizontal line y d instead of about the x-axis. y Example 6 y = 2 + 3 cos 2x 5 Vertical Translation Sketch the graph of y 2 3 cos 2x. Solution The amplitude is 3 and the period is . The key points over the interval 0, are 1 −π 0, 5, π −1 Period π FIGURE 4.56 x 4 , 2, 2 , 1, 34, 2, and , 5. The graph is shown in Figure 4.56. Compared with the graph of f x 3 cos 2x, the graph of y 2 3 cos 2x is shifted upward two units. Now try Exercise 57. Section 4.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 325 Mathematical Modeling Sine and cosine functions can be used to model many real-life situations, including electric currents, musical tones, radio waves, tides, and weather patterns. Time, t Depth, y Midnight 2 A.M. 4 A.M. 6 A.M. 8 A.M. 10 A.M. Noon 3.4 8.7 11.3 9.1 3.8 0.1 1.2 Example 7 Finding a Trigonometric Model Throughout the day, the depth of water at the end of a dock in Bar Harbor, Maine varies with the tides. The table shows the depths (in feet) at various times during the morning. (Source: Nautical Software, Inc.) a. Use a trigonometric function to model the data. b. Find the depths at 9 A.M. and 3 P.M. c. A boat needs at least 10 feet of water to moor at the dock. During what times in the afternoon can it safely dock? Solution y a. Begin by graphing the data, as shown in Figure 4.57. You can use either a sine or a cosine model. Suppose you use a cosine model of the form Changing Tides Depth (in feet) 12 y a cosbt c d. 10 The difference between the maximum height and the minimum height of the graph is twice the amplitude of the function. So, the amplitude is 8 6 1 1 a maximum depth minimum depth 11.3 0.1 5.6. 2 2 4 2 t 4 A.M. 8 A.M. Noon Time FIGURE The cosine function completes one half of a cycle between the times at which the maximum and minimum depths occur. So, the period is p 2time of min. depth time of max. depth 210 4 12 4.57 which implies that b 2p " 0.524. Because high tide occurs 4 hours after midnight, consider the left endpoint to be cb 4, so c " 2.094. Moreover, because the average depth is 12 11.3 0.1 5.7, it follows that d 5.7. So, you can model the depth with the function given by y 5.6 cos0.524t 2.094 5.7. b. The depths at 9 A.M. and 3 P.M. are as follows. y 5.6 cos0.524 % 9 2.094 5.7 12 (14.7, 10) (17.3, 10) " 0.84 foot 9 A.M. y 5.6 cos0.524 % 15 2.094 5.7 y = 10 0 24 0 y = 5.6 cos(0.524t − 2.094) + 5.7 FIGURE 4.58 " 10.57 feet 3 P.M. c. To find out when the depth y is at least 10 feet, you can graph the model with the line y 10 using a graphing utility, as shown in Figure 4.58. Using the intersect feature, you can determine that the depth is at least 10 feet between 2:42 P.M. t " 14.7 and 5:18 P.M. t " 17.3. Now try Exercise 91. 326 Chapter 4 Trigonometry EXERCISES 4.5 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. 1. One period of a sine or cosine function is called one ________ of the sine or cosine curve. 2. The ________ of a sine or cosine curve represents half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of the function. c 3. For the function given by y a sinbx c, represents the ________ ________ of the graph of the function. b 4. For the function given by y d a cosbx c, d represents a ________ ________ of the graph of the function. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 5–18, find the period and amplitude. 5. y 2 sin 5x In Exercises 19–26, describe the relationship between the graphs of f and g. Consider amplitude, period, and shifts. 6. y 3 cos 2x y 19. f x sin x gx sinx y 3 2 1 x x π 10 −3 7. y π 2 −2 −3 3 x cos 4 2 8. y 3 sin 20. f x cos x gx cosx 22. f x sin 3x gx sin3x 21. f x cos 2x gx cos 2x 23. f x cos x gx cos 2x 25. f x sin 2x x 3 24. f x sin x gx sin 3x 26. f x cos 4x gx 2 cos 4x gx 3 sin 2x y y In Exercises 27–30, describe the relationship between the graphs of f and g. Consider amplitude, period, and shifts. 4 1 x −π −2 π 2π −1 x π y 27. 3 −2 −3 y π 2 −1 x −π π 3 2 1 x −2π 2x 3 11. y 4 sin x 12. y cos 13. y 3 sin 10x 5 4x 15. y cos 3 5 1 17. y sin 2 x 4 1 14. y 5 sin 6x x 5 16. y cos 2 4 2 x 18. y cos 3 10 y 30. f 4 3 2 g 2π x f −2 −3 g −2 −3 −2 π x y 29. 2 1 g 2 π x 3 10. y cos 2 2 y 3 f −4 1 x 9. y sin 2 3 y 28. x −2π g f 2π x −2 In Exercises 31–38, graph f and g on the same set of coordinate axes. (Include two full periods.) 31. f x 2 sin x gx 4 sin x 33. f x cos x gx 2 cos x 32. f x sin x x gx sin 3 34. f x 2 cos 2x gx cos 4x Section 4.5 1 x 35. f x sin 2 2 GRAPHICAL REASONING In Exercises 73–76, find a and d for the function f x! " a cos x ( d such that the graph of f matches the figure. 36. f x 4 sin x 1 x sin 2 2 37. f x 2 cos x gx 3 gx 4 sin x 3 y 73. 38. f x cos x gx 2 cosx 2 4 f −π 1 In Exercises 39– 60, sketch the graph of the function. (Include two full periods.) 40. y 14 sin x 42. y 4 cos x x 2 43. y cos 47. y sin 46. y sin 2 x 3 49. y sin x 2 2 x 3 1 55. y 2 10 cos 60 x x 2 cos 3 2 4 4 54. y 3 5 cos t 12 61. gx sin4x 62. gx sin2x 63. gx cosx 2 64. gx 1 cosx 65. gx 2 sin4x 3 66. gx 4 sin2x In Exercises 67–72, use a graphing utility to graph the function. Include two full periods. Be sure to choose an appropriate viewing window. 2 67. y 2 sin4x 68. y 4 sin x 3 3 1 69. y cos 2 x 2 x 70. y 3 cos 2 2 2 1 x 72. y sin 120 t 71. y 0.1 sin 10 100 −5 y 78. 3 2 1 1 60. y 3 cos6x x f π π y 77. In Exercises 61– 66, g is related to a parent function f x! " sin x! or f x! " cos x!. (a) Describe the sequence of transformations from f to g. (b) Sketch the graph of g. (c) Use function notation to write g in terms of f. x π −1 −2 GRAPHICAL REASONING In Exercises 77–80, find a, b, and c for the function f x! " a sin bx c! such that the graph of f matches the figure. 56. y 2 cos x 3 4 58. y 4 cos x 4 57. y 3 cosx 3 59. y x 6 52. y 4 cos x 53. y 2 sin f −π −2 50. y sinx 2 51. y 3 cosx 1 −π f 48. y 10 cos y 76. 10 8 6 4 x 4 f −3 −4 y 75. x π x π 2 −1 −2 44. y sin 4x 45. y cos 2 x y 74. gx cosx 39. y 5 sin x 41. y 13 cos x 327 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions x −π −3 3 2 π −2 −3 y 80. 3 2 1 f x π −3 y 79. f f x x 2 4 −2 −3 In Exercises 81 and 82, use a graphing utility to graph y1 and y2 in the interval ['2$, 2$]. Use the graphs to find real numbers x such that y1 " y2. 81. y1 sin x y2 12 82. y1 cos x y2 1 In Exercises 83–86, write an equation for the function that is described by the given characteristics. 83. A sine curve with a period of , an amplitude of 2, a right phase shift of 2, and a vertical translation up 1 unit 328 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 84. A sine curve with a period of 4, an amplitude of 3, a left phase shift of 4, and a vertical translation down 1 unit 85. A cosine curve with a period of , an amplitude of 1, a left phase shift of , and a vertical translation down 3 2 units 86. A cosine curve with a period of 4, an amplitude of 3, a right phase shift of 2, and a vertical translation up 2 units 87. RESPIRATORY CYCLE For a person at rest, the velocity v (in liters per second) of airflow during a respiratory cycle (the time from the beginning of one breath to the beginning of the next) is given by t v 0.85 sin , where t is the time (in seconds). (Inhalation 3 occurs when v > 0, and exhalation occurs when v < 0.) (a) Find the time for one full respiratory cycle. (b) Find the number of cycles per minute. (c) Sketch the graph of the velocity function. 88. RESPIRATORY CYCLE After exercising for a few minutes, a person has a respiratory cycle for which the velocity of airflow is approximated t by v 1.75 sin , where t is the time (in seconds). 2 (Inhalation occurs when v > 0, and exhalation occurs when v < 0.) (a) Find the time for one full respiratory cycle. (b) Find the number of cycles per minute. (c) Sketch the graph of the velocity function. 89. DATA ANALYSIS: METEOROLOGY The table shows the maximum daily high temperatures in Las Vegas L and International Falls I (in degrees Fahrenheit) for month t, with t 1 corresponding to January. (Source: National Climatic Data Center) Month, t Las Vegas, L International Falls, I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 57.1 63.0 69.5 78.1 87.8 98.9 104.1 101.8 93.8 80.8 66.0 57.3 13.8 22.4 34.9 51.5 66.6 74.2 78.6 76.3 64.7 51.7 32.5 18.1 (a) A model for the temperature in Las Vegas is given by Lt 80.60 23.50 cos 6 t 3.67 . Find a trigonometric model for International Falls. (b) Use a graphing utility to graph the data points and the model for the temperatures in Las Vegas. How well does the model fit the data? (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the data points and the model for the temperatures in International Falls. How well does the model fit the data? (d) Use the models to estimate the average maximum temperature in each city. Which term of the models did you use? Explain. (e) What is the period of each model? Are the periods what you expected? Explain. (f) Which city has the greater variability in temperature throughout the year? Which factor of the models determines this variability? Explain. 90. HEALTH The function given by P 100 20 cos 5 t 3 approximates the blood pressure P (in millimeters of mercury) at time t (in seconds) for a person at rest. (a) Find the period of the function. (b) Find the number of heartbeats per minute. 91. PIANO TUNING When tuning a piano, a technician strikes a tuning fork for the A above middle C and sets up a wave motion that can be approximated by y 0.001 sin 880 t, where t is the time (in seconds). (a) What is the period of the function? (b) The frequency f is given by f 1p. What is the frequency of the note? 92. DATA ANALYSIS: ASTRONOMY The percents y (in decimal form) of the moon’s face that was illuminated on day x in the year 2009, where x 1 represents January 1, are shown in the table. (Source: U.S. Naval Observatory)x x y 4 11 18 26 33 40 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Section 4.5 (a) Create a scatter plot of the data. (b) Find a trigonometric model that fits the data. (c) Add the graph of your model in part (b) to the scatter plot. How well does the model fit the data? (d) What is the period of the model? (e) Estimate the moon’s percent illumination for March 12, 2009. 93. FUEL CONSUMPTION The daily consumption C (in gallons) of diesel fuel on a farm is modeled by C 30.3 21.6 sin 365 10.9 2 t where t is the time (in days), with t 1 corresponding to January 1. (a) What is the period of the model? Is it what you expected? Explain. (b) What is the average daily fuel consumption? Which term of the model did you use? Explain. (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the model. Use the graph to approximate the time of the year when consumption exceeds 40 gallons per day. 94. FERRIS WHEEL A Ferris wheel is built such that the height h (in feet) above ground of a seat on the wheel at time t (in seconds) can be modeled by ht 53 50 sin 10 t 2 . (a) Find the period of the model. What does the period tell you about the ride? (b) Find the amplitude of the model. What does the amplitude tell you about the ride? (c) Use a graphing utility to graph one cycle of the model. EXPLORATION TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 95–97, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 95. The graph of the function given by f x sinx 2 translates the graph of f x sin x exactly one period to the right so that the two graphs look identical. 96. The function given by y 12 cos 2x has an amplitude that is twice that of the function given by y cos x. 97. The graph of y cos x is a reflection of the graph of y sinx 2 in the x-axis. 98. WRITING Sketch the graph of y cos bx for b 12, 2, and 3. How does the value of b affect the graph? How many complete cycles occur between 0 and 2 for each value of b? Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 329 99. WRITING Sketch the graph of y sinx c for c 4, 0, and 4. How does the value of c affect the graph? 100. CAPSTONE Use a graphing utility to graph the function given by y d a sinbx c, for several different values of a, b, c, and d. Write a paragraph describing the changes in the graph corresponding to changes in each constant. CONJECTURE In Exercises 101 and 102, graph f and g on the same set of coordinate axes. Include two full periods. Make a conjecture about the functions. 2 101. f x sin x, gx cos x 102. f x sin x, gx cos x 2 103. Using calculus, it can be shown that the sine and cosine functions can be approximated by the polynomials sin x x x3 x5 and cos x 3! 5! 1 x4 x2 2! 4! where x is in radians. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the sine function and its polynomial approximation in the same viewing window. How do the graphs compare? (b) Use a graphing utility to graph the cosine function and its polynomial approximation in the same viewing window. How do the graphs compare? (c) Study the patterns in the polynomial approximations of the sine and cosine functions and predict the next term in each. Then repeat parts (a) and (b). How did the accuracy of the approximations change when an additional term was added? 104. Use the polynomial approximations of the sine and cosine functions in Exercise 103 to approximate the following function values. Compare the results with those given by a calculator. Is the error in the approximation the same in each case? Explain. 6 (d) cos0.5 (e) cos 1 (f) cos 4 PROJECT: METEOROLOGY To work an extended application analyzing the mean monthly temperature and mean monthly precipitation in Honolulu, Hawaii, visit this text’s website at academic.cengage.com. (Data Source: National Climatic Data Center) (a) sin 1 2 (b) sin 1 (c) sin 330 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 4.6 GRAPHS OF OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS What you should learn • Sketch the graphs of tangent functions. • Sketch the graphs of cotangent functions. • Sketch the graphs of secant and cosecant functions. • Sketch the graphs of damped trigonometric functions. Why you should learn it Recall that the tangent function is odd. That is, tanx tan x. Consequently, the graph of y tan x is symmetric with respect to the origin. You also know from the identity tan x sin xcos x that the tangent is undefined for values at which cos x 0. Two such values are x ± 2 ± 1.5708. x tan x 2 Undef. 1.57 1.5 4 0 4 1.5 1.57 2 1255.8 14.1 1 0 1 14.1 1255.8 Undef. As indicated in the table, tan x increases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left, and decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the right. So, the graph of y tan x has vertical asymptotes at x 2 and x 2, as shown in Figure 4.59. Moreover, because the period of the tangent function is , vertical asymptotes also occur when x 2 n, where n is an integer. The domain of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers other than x 2 n, and the range is the set of all real numbers. Alan Pappe/Photodisc/Getty Images Graphs of trigonometric functions can be used to model real-life situations such as the distance from a television camera to a unit in a parade, as in Exercise 92 on page 339. Graph of the Tangent Function y y = tan x PERIOD: DOMAIN: ALL x 2 n RANGE: ( , ) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES: x 2 n SYMMETRY: ORIGIN 3 2 1 x − 3π 2 −π 2 π 2 π 3π 2 −3 • You can review odd and even functions in Section 1.5. • You can review symmetry of a graph in Section 1.2. • You can review trigonometric identities in Section 4.3. • You can review asymptotes in Section 2.6. • You can review domain and range of a function in Section 1.4. • You can review intercepts of a graph in Section 1.2. FIGURE 4.59 Sketching the graph of y a tanbx c is similar to sketching the graph of y a sinbx c in that you locate key points that identify the intercepts and asymptotes. Two consecutive vertical asymptotes can be found by solving the equations bx c 2 and bx c . 2 The midpoint between two consecutive vertical asymptotes is an x-intercept of the graph. The period of the function y a tanbx c is the distance between two consecutive vertical asymptotes. The amplitude of a tangent function is not defined. After plotting the asymptotes and the x-intercept, plot a few additional points between the two asymptotes and sketch one cycle. Finally, sketch one or two additional cycles to the left and right. Section 4.6 y = tan y x 2 Example 1 331 Sketching the Graph of a Tangent Function Sketch the graph of y tanx2. 3 2 Solution 1 By solving the equations x −π π 3π x 2 2 x 2 2 and x x you can see that two consecutive vertical asymptotes occur at x and x . Between these two asymptotes, plot a few points, including the x-intercept, as shown in the table. Three cycles of the graph are shown in Figure 4.60. −3 FIGURE Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 4.60 tan x 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 Undef. x Undef. Now try Exercise 15. Example 2 Sketching the Graph of a Tangent Function Sketch the graph of y 3 tan 2x. Solution y By solving the equations y = −3 tan 2x 6 x − 3π − π 4 2 −π 4 −2 −4 π 4 π 2 3π 4 2x 2 x 4 and 2x 2 x 4 you can see that two consecutive vertical asymptotes occur at x 4 and x 4. Between these two asymptotes, plot a few points, including the x-intercept, as shown in the table. Three cycles of the graph are shown in Figure 4.61. −6 FIGURE 4.61 x 3 tan 2x 4 Undef. 8 3 0 8 4 0 3 Undef. By comparing the graphs in Examples 1 and 2, you can see that the graph of y a tanbx c increases between consecutive vertical asymptotes when a > 0, and decreases between consecutive vertical asymptotes when a < 0. In other words, the graph for a < 0 is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph for a > 0. Now try Exercise 17. 332 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Graph of the Cotangent Function The graph of the cotangent function is similar to the graph of the tangent function. It also has a period of . However, from the identity y cot x T E C H N O LO G Y Some graphing utilities have difficulty graphing trigonometric functions that have vertical asymptotes. Your graphing utility may connect parts of the graphs of tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions that are not supposed to be connected. To eliminate this problem, change the mode of the graphing utility to dot mode. you can see that the cotangent function has vertical asymptotes when sin x is zero, which occurs at x n, where n is an integer. The graph of the cotangent function is shown in Figure 4.62. Note that two consecutive vertical asymptotes of the graph of y a cotbx c can be found by solving the equations bx c 0 and bx c . y 1 x −π −π 2 π 2 Sketching the Graph of a Cotangent Function 1 Solution x π 3π 4π 6π By solving the equations x 0 3 x 3 3 and x 3 x0 4.63 2π 4.62 2 −2π FIGURE 3π 2 π x Sketch the graph of y 2 cot . 3 3 PERIOD: DOMAIN: ALL x n RANGE: ( , ) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES: x n SYMMETRY: ORIGIN 2 Example 3 y = 2 cot x 3 y = cot x 3 FIGURE y cos x sin x you can see that two consecutive vertical asymptotes occur at x 0 and x 3. Between these two asymptotes, plot a few points, including the x-intercept, as shown in the table. Three cycles of the graph are shown in Figure 4.63. Note that the period is 3, the distance between consecutive asymptotes. x 2 cot x 3 0 3 4 3 2 9 4 3 Undef. 2 0 2 Undef. Now try Exercise 27. Section 4.6 333 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions Graphs of the Reciprocal Functions The graphs of the two remaining trigonometric functions can be obtained from the graphs of the sine and cosine functions using the reciprocal identities csc x 1 sin x 1 . cos x sec x and For instance, at a given value of x, the y-coordinate of sec x is the reciprocal of the y-coordinate of cos x. Of course, when cos x 0, the reciprocal does not exist. Near such values of x, the behavior of the secant function is similar to that of the tangent function. In other words, the graphs of tan x sin x cos x sec x and 1 cos x have vertical asymptotes at x 2 n, where n is an integer, and the cosine is zero at these x-values. Similarly, cot x cos x sin x csc x and 1 sin x have vertical asymptotes where sin x 0 —that is, at x n. To sketch the graph of a secant or cosecant function, you should first make a sketch of its reciprocal function. For instance, to sketch the graph of y csc x, first sketch the graph of y sin x. Then take reciprocals of the y-coordinates to obtain points on the graph of y csc x. This procedure is used to obtain the graphs shown in Figure 4.64. y y y = csc x 3 2 y = sin x −π −1 y = sec x 3 π 2 π x x −π −1 −2 π 2 π 2π y = cos x −3 PERIOD: 2 DOMAIN: ALL x n RANGE: ( , 1 1, ) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES: x n SYMMETRY: ORIGIN FIGURE 4.64 y Cosecant: relative minimum Sine: minimum 4 3 2 1 x −1 −2 −3 −4 FIGURE Sine: π maximum Cosecant: relative maximum 4.65 2π PERIOD: 2 DOMAIN: ALL x 2 n RANGE: ( , 1 1, ) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES: x 2 n SYMMETRY: y-AXIS In comparing the graphs of the cosecant and secant functions with those of the sine and cosine functions, note that the “hills” and “valleys” are interchanged. For example, a hill (or maximum point) on the sine curve corresponds to a valley (a relative minimum) on the cosecant curve, and a valley (or minimum point) on the sine curve corresponds to a hill (a relative maximum) on the cosecant curve, as shown in Figure 4.65. Additionally, x-intercepts of the sine and cosine functions become vertical asymptotes of the cosecant and secant functions, respectively (see Figure 4.65). 334 Chapter 4 Trigonometry y = 2 csc x + π y y = 2 sin x + π 4 4 ( ) ( ) Example 4 Sketching the Graph of a Cosecant Function 4 . 4 Sketch the graph of y 2 csc x 3 Solution 1 x π Begin by sketching the graph of 2π . 4 y 2 sin x For this function, the amplitude is 2 and the period is 2. By solving the equations FIGURE x 4.66 0 4 x x and 4 2 4 x 7 4 you can see that one cycle of the sine function corresponds to the interval from x 4 to x 74. The graph of this sine function is represented by the gray curve in Figure 4.66. Because the sine function is zero at the midpoint and endpoints of this interval, the corresponding cosecant function y 2 csc x 2 4 sinx 1 4 has vertical asymptotes at x 4, x 34, x 74, etc. The graph of the cosecant function is represented by the black curve in Figure 4.66. Now try Exercise 33. Example 5 Sketching the Graph of a Secant Function Sketch the graph of y sec 2x. Solution y = sec 2x y y = cos 2x Begin by sketching the graph of y cos 2x, as indicated by the gray curve in Figure 4.67. Then, form the graph of y sec 2x as the black curve in the figure. Note that the x-intercepts of y cos 2x 3 4 , 0, −π −π 2 −1 π 2 π x 4 , 0, 34, 0, . . . correspond to the vertical asymptotes x , 4 x , 4 x 3 ,. . . 4 −2 −3 FIGURE 4.67 of the graph of y sec 2x. Moreover, notice that the period of y cos 2x and y sec 2x is . Now try Exercise 35. Section 4.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 335 Damped Trigonometric Graphs A product of two functions can be graphed using properties of the individual functions. For instance, consider the function f x x sin x as the product of the functions y x and y sin x. Using properties of absolute value and the fact that sin x 1, you have 0 x sin x x . Consequently, y y = −x 3π x y=x x sin x x which means that the graph of f x x sin x lies between the lines y x and y x. Furthermore, because 2π π f x x sin x ± x x π −π x n 2 and f x x sin x 0 −2π x n at the graph of f touches the line y x or the line y x at x 2 n and has x-intercepts at x n. A sketch of f is shown in Figure 4.68. In the function f x x sin x, the factor x is called the damping factor. −3π f(x) = x sin x FIGURE at 4.68 Example 6 Damped Sine Wave Sketch the graph of f x ex sin 3x. Do you see why the graph of f x x sin x touches the lines y ± x at x 2 n and why the graph has x-intercepts at x n? Recall that the sine function is equal to 1 at 2, 32, 52, . . . odd multiples of 2 and is equal to 0 at , 2, 3, . . . multiples of . Solution Consider f x as the product of the two functions y ex y sin 3x and each of which has the set of real numbers as its domain. For any real number x, you 1. So, ex sin 3x ex, which means that know that ex 0 and sin 3x ex ex sin 3x ex. Furthermore, because f(x) = e−x sin 3x y f x ex sin 3x ± ex at 6 y= e−x π 3 2π 3 f x ex sin 3x 0 at x x y = −e−x −6 FIGURE 4.69 n 6 3 and 4 −4 x π n 3 the graph of f touches the curves y ex and y ex at x 6 n3 and has intercepts at x n3. A sketch is shown in Figure 4.69. Now try Exercise 65. 336 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Figure 4.70 summarizes the characteristics of the six basic trigonometric functions. y y 2 2 y = sin x y y = tan x 3 y = cos x 2 1 1 x −π −π 2 π 2 π x −π 3π 2 π −2 DOMAIN: ( , ) RANGE: 1, 1 PERIOD: 2 DOMAIN: ( , ) RANGE: 1, 1 PERIOD: 2 y = csc x = 1 sin x y 3 π 2 y = sec x = 1 cos x y 2 2 1 1 π 2π y = cot x = tan1 x 3 3 π 2 x x −π −π 2 5π 2 3π 2 π DOMAIN: ALL x 2 n RANGE: ( , ) PERIOD: x −π x −π 2 −1 −2 y 2π π 2 π 3π 2 π 2π 2π −2 −3 DOMAIN: ALL x n RANGE: ( , 1 1, ) PERIOD: 2 FIGURE 4.70 DOMAIN: ALL x 2 n RANGE: ( , 1 1, ) PERIOD: 2 DOMAIN: ALL x n RANGE: ( , ) PERIOD: CLASSROOM DISCUSSION Combining Trigonometric Functions Recall from Section 1.8 that functions can be combined arithmetically. This also applies to trigonometric functions. For each of the functions h!x" ! x sin x and h!x" ! cos x " sin 3x (a) identify two simpler functions f and g that comprise the combination, (b) use a table to show how to obtain the numerical values of h!x" from the numerical values of f !x" and g!x", and (c) use graphs of f and g to show how the graph of h may be formed. Can you find functions f !x" ! d such that f !x" a sin!bx c" and g!x" ! 0 for all x? g!x" ! d a cos!bx c" Section 4.6 EXERCISES 4.6 337 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. 1. The tangent, cotangent, and cosecant functions are ________ , so the graphs of these functions have symmetry with respect to the ________. 2. The graphs of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions all have ________ asymptotes. 3. To sketch the graph of a secant or cosecant function, first make a sketch of its corresponding ________ function. 4. For the functions given by f x gx ! sin x, gx is called the ________ factor of the function f x. 5. The period of y tan x is ________. 6. The domain of y cot x is all real numbers such that ________. 7. The range of y sec x is ________. 8. The period of y csc x is ________. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 9–14, match the function with its graph. State the period of the function. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f).] y (a) 2 1 1 tan x 3 17. y 2 tan 3x 19. y 12 sec x 15. y y (b) In Exercises 15–38, sketch the graph of the function. Include two full periods. 1 x x 1 2 y 4 3 2 1 3 2 x −π 2 −3 −4 3π 2 −3 y 4 29. y 2 sec 3x x 31. y tan 4 33. y 2 cscx 3 37. y π 2 x 1 11. y cot x 2 x 1 13. y sec 2 2 32. y tanx 34. y csc2x 36. y sec x 1 1 csc x 4 4 38. y 2 cot x 2 x 1 9. y sec 2x x 2 35. y 2 secx y (f ) 22. y 3 csc 4x 24. y 2 sec 4x 2 x 26. y csc 3 x 28. y 3 cot 2 1 30. y 2 tan x 27. y 3 cot 2x x π 2 − 3π 2 (e) y (d) 18. y 3 tan x 20. y 14 sec x 21. y csc x 23. y 12 sec x 25. y csc (c) 16. y tan 4x x 10. y tan 2 12. y csc x x 14. y 2 sec 2 In Exercises 39–48, use a graphing utility to graph the function. Include two full periods. 39. y tan x 3 40. y tan 2x 41. y 2 sec 4x 43. y tan x 4 45. y csc4x x 47. y 0.1 tan 4 4 42. y sec x 1 44. y cot x 4 2 46. y 2 sec2x 1 x 48. y sec 3 2 2 338 Chapter 4 Trigonometry In Exercises 49–56, use a graph to solve the equation on the interval ["2#, 2#]. 50. tan x 3 49. tan x 1 51. cot x 3 3 52. cot x 1 53. sec x 2 54. sec x 2 55. csc x 2 56. csc x 23 3 70. y1 tan x cot2 x, y2 cot x 71. y1 1 cot2 x, y2 csc2 x 72. y1 sec2 x 1, y2 tan2 x In Exercises 73–76, match the function with its graph. Describe the behavior of the function as x approaches zero. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).] y (a) 2 f x sec x gx cot x f x x tan x gx x csc x 58. 60. 62. 64. f x tan x gx csc x f x x2 sec x 4 x In Exercises 57– 64, use the graph of the function to determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither. Verify your answer algebraically. 57. 59. 61. 63. y (b) x π 2 gx x2 cot x y (d) 4 3 2 1 4 2 65. GRAPHICAL REASONING given by f x 2 sin x and gx Consider the functions 1 csc x 2 on the interval 0, . (a) Graph f and g in the same coordinate plane. (b) Approximate the interval in which f > g. (c) Describe the behavior of each of the functions as x approaches . How is the behavior of g related to the behavior of f as x approaches ? 66. GRAPHICAL REASONING Consider the functions given by f x tan x x 1 and gx sec 2 2 2 on the interval 1, 1. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph f and g in the same viewing window. (b) Approximate the interval in which f < g. (c) Approximate the interval in which 2f < 2g. How does the result compare with that of part (b)? Explain. In Exercises 67–72, use a graphing utility to graph the two equations in the same viewing window. Use the graphs to determine whether the expressions are equivalent. Verify the results algebraically. 67. y1 sin x csc x, y2 1 68. y1 sin x sec x, y2 tan x cos x , y2 cot x 69. y1 sin x x −π 3π 2 −4 y (c) 2 π 2 −1 −2 −3 −4 −5 −6 π −2 −π −4 73. f x x cos x 75. gx x sin x π −1 −2 x 74. f x x sin x 76. gx x cos x CONJECTURE In Exercises 77– 80, graph the functions f and g. Use the graphs to make a conjecture about the relationship between the functions. 2 , 78. f x sin x cosx , 2 77. f x sin x cos x gx 0 gx 2 sin x 79. f x sin2 x, gx 12 1 cos 2x 1 x 80. f x cos2 , gx 1 cos x 2 2 In Exercises 81–84, use a graphing utility to graph the function and the damping factor of the function in the same viewing window. Describe the behavior of the function as x increases without bound. 81. gx ex 83. f x 22 2x4 sin x cos x 82. f x ex cos x 84. hx 2x 4 sin x 2 In Exercises 85–90, use a graphing utility to graph the function. Describe the behavior of the function as x approaches zero. 85. y 6 cos x, x > 0 x 86. y 4 sin 2x, x > 0 x 87. gx sin x x 88. f x 1 89. f x sin x 1 cos x x 1 90. hx x sin x 91. DISTANCE A plane flying at an altitude of 7 miles above a radar antenna will pass directly over the radar antenna (see figure). Let d be the ground distance from the antenna to the point directly under the plane and let x be the angle of elevation to the plane from the antenna. (d is positive as the plane approaches the antenna.) Write d as a function of x and graph the function over the interval 0 < x < . 7 mi x d Not drawn to scale 92. TELEVISION COVERAGE A television camera is on a reviewing platform 27 meters from the street on which a parade will be passing from left to right (see figure). Write the distance d from the camera to a particular unit in the parade as a function of the angle x, and graph the function over the interval 2 < x < 2. (Consider x as negative when a unit in the parade approaches from the left.) Temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) Section 4.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 80 339 H(t) 60 40 L(t) 20 t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month of year (a) What is the period of each function? (b) During what part of the year is the difference between the normal high and normal low temperatures greatest? When is it smallest? (c) The sun is northernmost in the sky around June 21, but the graph shows the warmest temperatures at a later date. Approximate the lag time of the temperatures relative to the position of the sun. 94. SALES The projected monthly sales S (in thousands of units) of lawn mowers (a seasonal product) are modeled by S 74 3t 40 cost6, where t is the time (in months), with t 1 corresponding to January. Graph the sales function over 1 year. 95. HARMONIC MOTION An object weighing W pounds is suspended from the ceiling by a steel spring (see figure). The weight is pulled downward (positive direction) from its equilibrium position and released. The resulting motion of the weight is described by the 1 function y 2 et4 cos 4t, t > 0, where y is the distance (in feet) and t is the time (in seconds). Not drawn to scale 27 m Equilibrium d y x Camera 93. METEOROLOGY The normal monthly high temperatures H (in degrees Fahrenheit) in Erie, Pennsylvania are approximated by (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function. (b) Describe the behavior of the displacement function for increasing values of time t. Ht 56.94 20.86 cos t6 11.58 sin t6 EXPLORATION and the normal monthly low temperatures L are approximated by TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 96 and 97, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. Lt 41.80 17.13 cos t6 13.39 sin t6 96. The graph of y csc x can be obtained on a calculator by graphing the reciprocal of y sin x. 97. The graph of y sec x can be obtained on a calculator by graphing a translation of the reciprocal of y sin x. where t is the time (in months), with t 1 corresponding to January (see figure). (Source: National Climatic Data Center) 340 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 98. CAPSTONE Determine which function is represented by the graph. Do not use a calculator. Explain your reasoning. (a) (b) y y x π 4 π 2 (i) f x tan 2x (ii) f x tanx2 (iii) f x 2 tan x (iv) f x tan 2x (v) f x tanx2 x −π −π 2 4 (i) f x (ii) f x (iii) f x (iv) f x (v) f x π 4 π 2 sec 4x cscx4 secx4 csc4x as x approaches #2 from the right # # as x approaches from the left (b) x → 2 2 # # (c) x → " as x approaches " from the right 2 2 # # (d) x → " as x approaches " from the left 2 2 # 2 " " 99. f x tan x As x → 0 , the value of f !x" → . As x → 0", the value of f !x" → . As x → # , the value of f !x" → . As x → # ", the value of f !x" → . 101. f x cot x What value does the sequence approach? 104. APPROXIMATION Using calculus, it can be shown that the tangent function can be approximated by the polynomial tan x x 2x 3 16x 5 3! 5! where x is in radians. Use a graphing utility to graph the tangent function and its polynomial approximation in the same viewing window. How do the graphs compare? 105. APPROXIMATION Using calculus, it can be shown that the secant function can be approximated by the polynomial sec x 1 x 2 5x 4 2! 4! where x is in radians. Use a graphing utility to graph the secant function and its polynomial approximation in the same viewing window. How do the graphs compare? 106. PATTERN RECOGNITION (a) Use a graphing utility to graph each function. 4 1 sin x sin 3 x 3 y2 4 1 1 sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x 3 5 (b) Identify the pattern started in part (a) and find a function y3 that continues the pattern one more term. Use a graphing utility to graph y3. (c) The graphs in parts (a) and (b) approximate the periodic function in the figure. Find a function y4 that is a better approximation. y 102. f x csc x 103. THINK ABOUT IT Consider the function given by f x x cos x. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function and verify that there exists a zero between 0 and 1. Use the graph to approximate the zero. y1 100. f x sec x In Exercises 101 and 102, use a graphing utility to graph the function. Use the graph to determine the behavior of the function as x → c. (a) (b) (c) (d) x1 cosx0 x2 cosx1 csc 4x In Exercises 99 and 100, use a graphing utility to graph the function. Use the graph to determine the behavior of the function as x → c. (a) x → x0 1 x3 cosx2 3 2 1 − π4 (b) Starting with x0 1, generate a sequence x1, x2, x3, . . . , where xn cosxn1. For example, 1 x 3 Section 4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 341 4.7 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS What you should learn • Evaluate and graph the inverse sine function. • Evaluate and graph the other inverse trigonometric functions. • Evaluate and graph the compositions of trigonometric functions. Inverse Sine Function Recall from Section 1.9 that, for a function to have an inverse function, it must be one-to-one—that is, it must pass the Horizontal Line Test. From Figure 4.71, you can see that y sin x does not pass the test because different values of x yield the same y-value. y y = sin x 1 Why you should learn it You can use inverse trigonometric functions to model and solve real-life problems. For instance, in Exercise 106 on page 349, an inverse trigonometric function can be used to model the angle of elevation from a television camera to a space shuttle launch. −π π x −1 sin x has an inverse function on this interval. FIGURE 4.71 However, if you restrict the domain to the interval 2 x 2 (corresponding to the black portion of the graph in Figure 4.71), the following properties hold. 1. On the interval 2, 2, the function y sin x is increasing. 2. On the interval 2, 2, y sin x takes on its full range of values, 1 sin x 1. 3. On the interval 2, 2, y sin x is one-to-one. So, on the restricted domain 2 x 2, y sin x has a unique inverse function called the inverse sine function. It is denoted by y arcsin x or y sin1 x. NASA The notation sin1 x is consistent with the inverse function notation f 1x. The arcsin x notation (read as “the arcsine of x”) comes from the association of a central angle with its intercepted arc length on a unit circle. So, arcsin x means the angle (or arc) whose sine is x. Both notations, arcsin x and sin1 x, are commonly used in mathematics, so remember that sin1 x denotes the inverse sine function rather than 1sin x. The values of arcsin x lie in the interval 2 arcsin x 2. The graph of y arcsin x is shown in Example 2. Definition of Inverse Sine Function When evaluating the inverse sine function, it helps to remember the phrase “the arcsine of x is the angle (or number) whose sine is x.” The inverse sine function is defined by y arcsin x if and only if sin y x where 1 x 1 and 2 y 2. The domain of y arcsin x is 1, 1, and the range is 2, 2. 342 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 1 As with the trigonometric functions, much of the work with the inverse trigonometric functions can be done by exact calculations rather than by calculator approximations. Exact calculations help to increase your understanding of the inverse functions by relating them to the right triangle definitions of the trigonometric functions. Evaluating the Inverse Sine Function If possible, find the exact value. 2 a. arcsin 1 b. sin1 3 c. sin1 2 2 Solution 6 2 for 2 a. Because sin 1 2 6 . arcsin b. Because sin sin1 1 2 , it follows that 2 Angle whose sine is 21 3 for 3 2 2 3 y . 3 , it follows that 2 y Angle whose sine is 32 c. It is not possible to evaluate y sin1 x when x 2 because there is no angle whose sine is 2. Remember that the domain of the inverse sine function is 1, 1. Now try Exercise 5. Example 2 Graphing the Arcsine Function Sketch a graph of y arcsin x. Solution By definition, the equations y arcsin x and sin y x are equivalent for 2 y 2. So, their graphs are the same. From the interval 2, 2, you can assign values to y in the second equation to make a table of values. Then plot the points and draw a smooth curve through the points. y (1, π2 ) π 2 ( 22 , π4 ) ( 21 , π6 ) (0, 0) − 1, −π 2 6 ( ( FIGURE ) 4.72 x sin y 1 1 ) −1, − π 2 x 2 y 4 2 2 6 0 6 4 1 2 0 1 2 2 2 2 1 y = arcsin x −π 2 ( 2 π − ,− 2 4 ) The resulting graph for y arcsin x is shown in Figure 4.72. Note that it is the reflection (in the line y x) of the black portion of the graph in Figure 4.71. Be sure you see that Figure 4.72 shows the entire graph of the inverse sine function. Remember that the domain of y arcsin x is the closed interval 1, 1 and the range is the closed interval 2, 2. Now try Exercise 21. Section 4.7 343 Inverse Trigonometric Functions Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions The cosine function is decreasing and one-to-one on the interval 0 in Figure 4.73. , as shown x y y = cos x x −π π 2 −1 π 2π cos x has an inverse function on this interval. FIGURE 4.73 Consequently, on this interval the cosine function has an inverse function—the inverse cosine function—denoted by y arccos x or y cos1 x. Similarly, you can define an inverse tangent function by restricting the domain of y tan x to the interval 2, 2. The following list summarizes the definitions of the three most common inverse trigonometric functions. The remaining three are defined in Exercises 115–117. Definitions of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions Function Domain Range y arcsin x if and only if sin y x 1 x 1 y arccos x if and only if cos y x 1 x 1 0 y arctan x if and only if tan y x < x < 2 2 y y < y < 2 2 The graphs of these three inverse trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 4.74. y y π 2 y π 2 π y = arcsin x π 2 x −1 1 − π 2 DOMAIN: 1, 1 RANGE: 2 , 2 FIGURE 4.74 y = arctan x y = arccos x x −1 DOMAIN: 1, 1 RANGE: 0, x −2 1 −1 − 1 π 2 DOMAIN: , RANGE: 2 , 2 2 344 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 3 Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions Find the exact value. a. arccos 2 b. cos11 2 d. tan11 c. arctan 0 Solution a. Because cos4 22, and 4 lies in 0, , it follows that arccos 2 2 . 4 Angle whose cosine is 22 b. Because cos 1, and lies in 0, , it follows that cos11 . Angle whose cosine is 1 c. Because tan 0 0, and 0 lies in 2, 2, it follows that arctan 0 0. Angle whose tangent is 0 d. Because tan 4 1, and 4 lies in 2, 2, it follows that tan11 . 4 Angle whose tangent is 1 Now try Exercise 15. Example 4 Calculators and Inverse Trigonometric Functions Use a calculator to approximate the value (if possible). a. arctan8.45 b. sin1 0.2447 c. arccos 2 Solution Function WARNING / CAUTION Remember that the domain of the inverse sine function and the inverse cosine function is 1, 1, as indicated in Example 4(c). Mode Radian Calculator Keystrokes TAN1 8.45 ENTER Radian COS1 a. arctan8.45 From the display, it follows that arctan8.45 1.453001. SIN1 0.2447 ENTER b. sin1 0.2447 Radian 1 From the display, it follows that sin 0.2447 0.2472103. c. arccos 2 2 ENTER In real number mode, the calculator should display an error message because the domain of the inverse cosine function is 1, 1. Now try Exercise 29. In Example 4, if you had set the calculator to degree mode, the displays would have been in degrees rather than radians. This convention is peculiar to calculators. By definition, the values of inverse trigonometric functions are always in radians. Section 4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 345 Compositions of Functions Recall from Section 1.9 that for all x in the domains of f and f 1, inverse functions have the properties You can review the composition of functions in Section 1.8. f f 1x x f 1 f x x. and Inverse Properties of Trigonometric Functions If 1 1 and 2 x sinarcsin x x If 1 , then y cosarccos x x 2, then arcsinsin y y. and 1 and 0 x y arccoscos y y. and If x is a real number and 2 < y < 2, then tanarctan x x arctantan y y. and Keep in mind that these inverse properties do not apply for arbitrary values of x and y. For instance, arcsin sin 3 3 arcsin1 . 2 2 2 In other words, the property arcsinsin y y is not valid for values of y outside the interval 2, 2. Example 5 Using Inverse Properties If possible, find the exact value. a. tanarctan5 b. arcsin sin 5 3 c. coscos1 Solution a. Because 5 lies in the domain of the arctan function, the inverse property applies, and you have tanarctan5 5. b. In this case, 53 does not lie within the range of the arcsine function, 2 y 2. However, 53 is coterminal with 5 2 3 3 which does lie in the range of the arcsine function, and you have arcsin sin 3 . 5 arcsin sin 3 3 c. The expression coscos1 is not defined because cos1 is not defined. Remember that the domain of the inverse cosine function is 1, 1. Now try Exercise 49. 346 Chapter 4 Trigonometry Example 6 shows how to use right triangles to find exact values of compositions of inverse functions. Then, Example 7 shows how to use right triangles to convert a trigonometric expression into an algebraic expression. This conversion technique is used frequently in calculus. y 32− 22= 3 Example 6 Evaluating Compositions of Functions 5 Find the exact value. u = arccos 2 3 x 2 Angle whose cosine is 23 FIGURE 4.75 a. tan arccos 2 3 3 Solution 2 2 a. If you let u arccos 3, then cos u 3. Because cos u is positive, u is a first-quadrant angle. You can sketch and label angle u as shown in Figure 4.75. Consequently, y 5 2 − (−3) 2 = 4 x ( ( u = arcsin − 3 5 −3 5 tan arccos 2 opp 5 tan u . 3 adj 2 b. If you let u arcsin 35 , then sin u 35. Because sin u is negative, u is a fourthquadrant angle. You can sketch and label angle u as shown in Figure 4.76. Consequently, 5 cos u hyp 5. cos arcsin Angle whose sine is FIGURE 4.76 5 b. cos arcsin 3 5 adj 3 4 Now try Exercise 57. Example 7 Some Problems from Calculus Write each of the following as an algebraic expression in x. a. sinarccos 3x, 1 1 − (3x)2 0 x 1 3 b. cotarccos 3x, 0 3x Angle whose cosine is 3x FIGURE 4.77 1 3 Solution If you let u arccos 3x, then cos u 3x, where 1 u = arccos 3x x < cos u 3x 1. Because adj 3x hyp 1 you can sketch a right triangle with acute angle u, as shown in Figure 4.77. From this triangle, you can easily convert each expression to algebraic form. opp 1 9x 2, 0 hyp adj 3x b. cotarccos 3x cot u , 0 opp 1 9x 2 a. sinarccos 3x sin u 1 3 1 x < 3 x Now try Exercise 67. In Example 7, similar arguments can be made for x-values lying in the interval 13, 0. Section 4.7 EXERCISES 4.7 347 Inverse Trigonometric Functions See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks. Function Alternative Notation Domain 1. y arcsin x __________ __________ 2. __________ 3. y arctan x y cos1 x 1 x 1 __________ __________ Range 2 2 y __________ __________ 4. Without restrictions, no trigonometric function has a(n) __________ function. SKILLS AND APPLICATIONS In Exercises 5–20, evaluate the expression without using a calculator. 5. arcsin 12 7. arccos 12 6. arcsin 0 8. arccos 0 3 9. arctan 11. cos1 2 13. arctan3 2 15. arccos 17. sin1 y 41. π 2 π 4 10. arctan1 3 3 In Exercises 41 and 42, determine the missing coordinates of the points on the graph of the function. 1 12. sin1 2 14. arctan 3 16. arcsin 2 3 3 ( 1 2 (− 3, ) ( ) π (−1, ) (− 12 , ) π x 3 π ,−6 4 ) y = arccos x ( π ,6 1 2 ) x −2 43. −1 44. x x 20. cos1 1 In Exercises 21 and 22, use a graphing utility to graph f, g, and y ! x in the same viewing window to verify geometrically that g is the inverse function of f. (Be sure to restrict the domain of f properly.) 21. f x sin x, −3 −2 π ,4 In Exercises 43– 48, use an inverse trigonometric function to write as a function of x. 2 18. tan1 19. tan1 0 2 3 2 y 42. y = arctan x θ θ 4 4 45. 46. 5 gx arcsin x 22. f x tan x, gx arctan x x+1 x+2 θ θ 10 In Exercises 23– 40, use a calculator to evaluate the expression. Round your result to two decimal places. 23. arccos 0.37 25. arcsin0.75 27. arctan3 24. arcsin 0.65 26. arccos0.7 29. sin1 0.31 31. arccos0.41 28. arctan 25 30. cos1 0.26 32. arcsin0.125 33. arctan 0.92 7 35. arcsin 8 19 37. tan1 4 34. arctan 2.8 1 36. arccos 3 95 38. tan1 7 39. tan1 372 40. tan1 2165 47. 48. 2x θ x−1 θ x+3 x2 − 1 In Exercises 49–54, use the properties of inverse trigonometric functions to evaluate the expression. 49. sinarcsin 0.3 51. cosarccos0.1 53. arcsinsin 3 50. tanarctan 45 52. sinarcsin0.2 7 54. arccos cos 2 348 Chapter 4 Trigonometry In Exercises 55–66, find the exact value of the expression. (Hint: Sketch a right triangle.) 55. sinarctan 4 56. secarcsin 5 57. costan1 2 58. sin cos1 59. cosarcsin 3 61. sec arctan 5 2 63. sin arccos 3 60. csc 62. tan 64. cot 3 5 5 2 83. g x arcsinx 1 66. sec sin1 2 2 84. gx arcsin In Exercises 67–76, write an algebraic expression that is equivalent to the expression. (Hint: Sketch a right triangle, as demonstrated in Example 7.) 67. cotarctan x 68. sinarctan x 69. cosarcsin 2x 70. secarctan 3x 71. sinarccos x 72. secarcsinx 1 x 2 In Exercises 85–90, sketch a graph of the function. 85. y 2 arccos x 86. gt arccost 2 87. f x) arctan 2x 88. f x arctan x 2 89. hv tanarccos v x 90. f x arccos 4 In Exercises 91–96, use a graphing utility to graph the function. 3 1 74. cotarctan x x 75. cscarctan 2 xh 76. cosarcsin r x 91. f x 2 arccos2x 92. f x arcsin4x 93. f x arctan2x 3 94. f x 3 arctan x 95. f x sin1 96. f x In Exercises 77 and 78, use a graphing utility to graph f and g in the same viewing window to verify that the two functions are equal. Explain why they are equal. Identify any asymptotes of the graphs. 2x 77. f x sinarctan 2x, gx 1 4x2 4 x 2 x 78. f x tan arccos , gx 2 x x 2 In Exercises 83 and 84, sketch a graph of the function and compare the graph of g with the graph of f "x# ! arcsin x. 5 arctan 12 3 arcsin 4 arctan 58 23 73. tan arccos x2 arctan, 2 4 5 13 65. csc cos1 82. arccos 23 1 cos1 2 In Exercises 97 and 98, write the function in terms of the sine function by using the identity A cos $t 1 B sin $t ! A2 1 B2 sin $t 1 arctan ! A . B Use a graphing utility to graph both forms of the function. What does the graph imply? 97. f t 3 cos 2t 3 sin 2t 98. f t 4 cos t 3 sin t In Exercises 79–82, fill in the blank. 79. arctan 80. arcsin 9 arcsin, x 36 x 2 6 x0 arccos, 0 3 arcsin 81. arccos x 2 2x 10 x 6 In Exercises 99–104, fill in the blank. If not possible, state the reason. (Note: The notation x → c# indicates that x approaches c from the right and x → c " indicates that x approaches c from the left.) 99. As x → 1, the value of arcsin x → . 100. As x → 1, the value of arccos x → . Section 4.7 101. As x → , the value of arctan x → . 102. As x → 1, the value of arcsin x → . 103. As x → 1, the value of arccos x → . 349 3 ft 104. As x → , the value of arctan x → . 105. DOCKING A BOAT A boat is pulled in by means of a winch located on a dock 5 feet above the deck of the boat (see figure). Let " be the angle of elevation from the boat to the winch and let s be the length of the rope from the winch to the boat. β θ α 1 ft x Not drawn to scale (a) Use a graphing utility to graph # as a function of x. (b) Move the cursor along the graph to approximate the distance from the picture when # is maximum. (c) Identify the asymptote of the graph and discuss its meaning in the context of the problem. s 5 ft Inverse Trigonometric Functions θ (a) Write " as a function of s. (b) Find " when s 40 feet and s 20 feet. 106. PHOTOGRAPHY A television camera at ground level is filming the lift-off of a space shuttle at a point 750 meters from the launch pad (see figure). Let " be the angle of elevation to the shuttle and let s be the height of the shuttle. 108. GRANULAR ANGLE OF REPOSE Different types of granular substances naturally settle at different angles when stored in cone-shaped piles. This angle " is called the angle of repose (see figure). When rock salt is stored in a cone-shaped pile 11 feet high, the diameter of the pile’s base is about 34 feet. (Source: Bulk-Store Structures, Inc.) 11 ft θ 17 ft s θ 750 m Not drawn to scale (a) Write " as a function of s. (b) Find " when s 300 meters and s 1200 meters. 107. PHOTOGRAPHY A photographer is taking a picture of a three-foot-tall painting hung in an art gallery. The camera lens is 1 foot below the lower edge of the painting (see figure). The angle # subtended by the camera lens x feet from the painting is 3x , x > 0. # arctan 2 x 4 (a) Find the angle of repose for rock salt. (b) How tall is a pile of rock salt that has a base diameter of 40 feet? 109. GRANULAR ANGLE OF REPOSE When whole corn is stored in a cone-shaped pile 20 feet high, the diameter of the pile’s base is about 82 feet. (a) Find the angle of repose for whole corn. (b) How tall is a pile of corn that has a base diameter of 100 feet? 110. ANGLE OF ELEVATION An airplane flies at an altitude of 6 miles toward a point directly over an observer. Consider " and x as shown in the figure. 6 mi θ x Not drawn to scale (a) Write " as a function of x. (b) Find " when x 7 miles and x 1 mile. 350 Chapter 4 Trigonometry 111. SECURITY PATROL A security car with its spotlight on is parked 20 meters from a warehouse. Consider and as shown in the figure. In Exercises 127–134, use the results of Exercises 115–117 and a calculator to approximate the value of the expression. Round your result to two decimal places. 128. arcsec1.52 130. arccot10 16 132. arccot 7 127. arcsec 2.54 129. arccot 5.25 5 131. arccot 3 25 133. arccsc 3 135. AREA In calculus, it is shown that the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y 0, y 1x 2 1, x a, and x b is given by x (a) Write " as a function of x. (b) Find " when x 5 meters and x 12 meters. EXPLORATION TRUE OR FALSE? In Exercises 112–114, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 5 1 112. sin 6 2 5 1 113. tan 4 y 1 −2 In Exercises 119–126, use the results of Exercises 115–117 to evaluate each expression without using a calculator. 2 3 3 (see figure). Find the area for the following values of a and b. (a) a 0, b 1 (b) a 1, b 1 (c) a 0, b 3 (d) a 1, b 3 y= 115. Define the inverse cotangent function by restricting the domain of the cotangent function to the interval 0, , and sketch its graph. 116. Define the inverse secant function by restricting the domain of the secant function to the intervals 0, 2 and 2, , and sketch its graph. 117. Define the inverse cosecant function by restricting the domain of the cosecant function to the intervals 2, 0 and 0, 2, and sketch its graph. 125. arccsc Area arctan b arctan a 1 5 arcsin 2 6 5 arctan 1 4 arcsin x 114. arctan x arccos x 119. arcsec 2 121. arccot1 123. arccsc 2 134. arccsc12 120. arcsec 1 122. arccot 3 124. arccsc1 126. arcsec 23 3 136. THINK ABOUT IT the functions a b 2 x Use a graphing utility to graph f x x and gx 6 arctan x. For x > 0, it appears that g > f. Explain why you know that there exists a positive real number a such that g < f for x > a. Approximate the number a. 137. THINK ABOUT IT Consider the functions given by f x sin x and f 1x arcsin x. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the composite functions f $ f 1 and f 1 $ f. (b) Explain why the graphs in part (a) are not the graph of the line y x. Why do the graphs of f $ f 1 and f 1 $ f differ? 138. PROOF Prove each identity. (a) arcsinx arcsin x (b) arctanx arctan x 1 (c) arctan x arctan , x 2 2 x (e) arcsin x arctan 1 x 2 (d) arcsin x arccos x 1 x2 + 1 x > 0 ERROR: rangecheck OFFENDING COMMAND: .buildshading2 STACK: -dictionary-dictionary-