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Prehistory and the First Civilizations
Paleolithic Art :: Neolithic Art :: Sumerian
Art :: Akkadian Art :: Babylonian Art ::
Assyrian Art :: Neo-Babylonian Art :: Achaemenid Persian Art :: Egyptian Art :
The Predynastic And Early Dynastic Periods :: The Old Kingdom :: The New Kingdom
PALEOLITHIC ART
Humankind seems to have originated in Africa in the very remote past. From that great
continent also comes the earliest evidence of human recognition of abstract images in the
natural environment, if not the first examples of what people generally call “art.”
In modern times, many artists have created works people universally consider art by
removing objects from their normal contexts, altering them, and then labeling them.
Evidence indicated that, with few exceptions, it was not until around 30,000 BCE, that
human intentionally manufactured sculptures and paintings.
The several millennia following 30,000 BCE saw a powerful outburst of creativity.
During the Paleolithic period, humankind went beyond the recognition of human and
animal forms in the natural environment to the representations of humans and animals.
The first sculptures:
Some of the earliest surviving artworks from the Paleolithic period in Europe are small
statuettes of humans. A number of prehistoric sculptures depict nude women, dubbed
"Venuses."
1-1: Nude woman (Venus of Willendorf), from Willendorf, Austria, ca. 28,000–
25,000 BCE. Limestone, approx. 4 1/4” high. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
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Venus of Willendorf
Venus of Willendorf
Venus of Willendorf
Venus of Willendorf
Venus of Willendorf
Paleolithic animals:
Other Paleolithic sculptors created reliefs by building up forms out of clay rather than by
cutting into stone blocks or stone walls.
Clay bison: 1-2: Two bison, reliefs in cave at Le Tuc d’Audoubert, Ariège, France,
ca. 15,000–10,000 BCE. Clay, each approx. 2’ long.
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bison
bison
bison
bison
Horses and hands:
Signs, consisting of checks, dots, squares, or other arrangements of lines often
accompany the pictures of animals. Representations of human hands also are common.
1-3: Spotted horses and negative hand imprints, wall painting in the cave at PechMerle, Lot, France, ca. 22,000 BCE. Approx. 11’ 2” long.
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horses
horses
horses
horses
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The bulls of Lascaux:
Paintings of bulls dominate the first chamber in the extensively decorated caves at
Lascaux. Other animals are painted on the walls of the Chauvet Cave.
1-4: Hall of the Bulls (left wall), Lascaux, Dordogne, France, ca. 15,000–13,000 BCE.
Largest bull approx. 11’ 6” long.
1. Lascaux
2. Lascaux
3. Lascaux
Paleolithic narrative art?:
Perhaps the most perplexing painting in all the Paleolithic caves shows a man, a
rhinoceros, and a wounded bison. Researchers can be sure of nothing, but if the figures
were placed beside each other to tell a story, then this is evidence for the creation of
complex narrative compositions involving humans and animals at a much earlier date
than previously imagined.
1-5: Rhinoceros, wounded man, and disemboweled bison, painting in the well,
Lascaux, Dordogne, France, ca. 15,000–13,000 BCE. Bison approx. 3’ 8” long.
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well scene
well scene
well scene
well scene
NEOLITHIC ART
As the climate warms, much of the ice that covered northern Europe melts. The
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Paleolithic gives way around 9000 BCE to the transitional period of the Mesolithic,
which is followed by the Neolithic.
Neolithic Urbanism:
An early experiment in urban living, maintained continuously for 800 years.Painting at
Çatal Hüyük:
Artists employ a composite view of the human body, but show it as regular in appearance
and in a variety of poses and settings. Humans are shown dominating animals. The
paintings are done on a prepared wall surface.
1-6: Deer hunt, detail of a wall painting from Level III, Çatal Höyük, Turkey, ca.
5750 BCE. Museum of Anatolian Civilization, Ankara.
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Deer Hunt
Deer Hunt
Deer Hunt
Deer Hunt
Deer Hunt
Sculpture at Ain Ghazal:The inhabitants of Ain Ghazal built houses or irregularly shaped
stones, but carefully plastered and then painted their floors and walls red.
1-7: Human figure, from Ain Ghazal, Jordan, ca. 6750-6250 BCE. Plaster, painted
and inlaid with cowrie shell and bitumen, 3' 5 3/8 high. Louvre, Paris.
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related
related
related
related
Megaliths and henges:
Stonehenge was aligned with the rising sun at the midsummer solstice. It may have
served to predict both lunar and solar eclipses. 1-8: Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain,
Wiltshire, England, aerial view, ca. 2550-1600 BCE. Circle is 97' in diameter;
trilithons approx. 24' high.
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Stonehenge
Stonehenge
Stonehenge
Stonehenge
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SUMERIAN ART
When humans first gave up the roles of hunter and gatherer for the more predictable life
of farmer and gatherer, this revolutionary change in daily life-this Neolithic Revolution
as it is known,-first occurred in Mesopotamia, a Greek word that means the "land
between the [Tigris and Euphrates] rivers. The Sumerians occupied the lower valley
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now southern Iraq. They established
urban communities and developed the earliest known writing system. Beginning around
3200 BCE, the Sumerians constructed ziggurats and produced small-scale sculptures and
objects carved from alabaster, gypsum, lapis lazuli, limestone, marble, and wood. Details
and decorative elements were often inlaid using shell, lapis lazuli, red limestone, black
limestone, and gold.
Temples and Ziggurats:
The Sumerians built towering stepped platforms of mud bricks called ziggurats, with a
temple on the summit. Usually only the foundations of early Mesopotamian temples can
be recognized.The White Temple is a rare exception.
1-9 and 1-10: Reconstruction drawing of the White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk
(modern Warka), Iraq, ca. 3200–3000 BCE (after S. E. Piggott).
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reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
reconstruction
Gifts for a goddess:
A vase divided into three registers shows animals, a procession of naked men, and a
"priest-king" bringing offerings to a female priestess or goddess.
1-11: Presentation of offerings to Inanna (Warka Vase), from Uruk, Iraq, ca. 3200–
3000 BCE. Alabaster, 3’ 1/4" high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.
1. Warka Vase
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Warka Vase
Warka Vase
Warka Vase
Warka Vase
Perpetual worshipers:
Statuettes show standing men and women of varying size with large eyes and tiny hands
clasped in a gesture of prayer or holding a small beaker. Another statuette shows the
seated figure of the court singer Urnanshe in prayer.
1-12: Statuettes of
worshipers, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar), Iraq, ca.
2700 BCE. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone, tallest figure approx. 2’
6" high. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.
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statuettes
statuettes
statuettes
statuettes
statuettes
War and peace:
The spoils of war as well as farming and trade brought considerable wealth to some of the
city-states of ancient Sumer.
1-13(a): War side of the Standard of Ur, from Tomb 779, Royal Cemetery, Ur
(modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli,
and red limestone, approx. 8" x 1’ 7". British Museum, London.
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Standard of Ur (War Side)
Standard of Ur (War Side)
Standard of Ur (War Side)
Standard of Ur (War Side)
Standard of Ur (War Side)
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1-13(b): Peace side of the Standard of Ur, from Tomb 779, Royal Cemetery, Ur
(modern Tell Muqayyar), Iraq, ca. 2600 BCE. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli,
and red limestone, approx. 8" x 1’ 7". British Museum, London.
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Standard of Ur (Peace Side)
Standard of Ur (Peace Side)
Standard of Ur (Peace Side)
Standard of Ur
Standard of Ur - detail
Paleolithic Art :: Neolithic Art :: Sumerian Art :: Akkadian Art :: Babylonian
Art ::
Assyrian Art :: Neo-Babylonian Art :: Achaemenid Persian Art :: Egyptian Art :
The Predynastic And Early Dynastic Periods :: The Old Kingdom :: The New Kingdom
AKKADIAN ART
In 2334 B.C., Sumeria came under the domination of the Semitic ruler Sargon, whose
city, Akkad, gave its name to the language and the culture. The art of this time focuses on
exhibiting the status and power of male rulers. Their victories in war and laws are
recorded on upright stone slabs.
Imperial majesty vandalized:
A life-size, hollow-cast copper head with inlaid eyes (now lost) and a curly beard show a
high level of skill in metalworking.
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1-14: Head of an Akkadian ruler, from Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik), Iraq, ca. 22502200 B.C. COPPER, 1' 2 3/8" HIGH. IRAQ MUSEUM, BAGHDAD.
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head
head
head
head
A god-king crushes foes:
A stone marker carved in relief commemorates the victory of a king and his army in the
wooded Iranian mountains. 1-15: Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran, 22542218 B.C. PINK SANDSTONE, APPROX. 6' 7" HIGH. LOUVRE, PARIS.
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stele
stele
stele
stele
BABYLONIAN ART
1-16: Stele with law code of Hammurabi (upper part), from Susa, Iran, ca. 1780
B.C. BASALT. LOUVRE, APPROX. 7'4" HIGH, PARIS.
1. Hammurabi stele
2. Hammurabi stele
3. Hammurabi stele
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ASSYRIAN ART
Sargon's citadel:
The Assyrians undertook ambitious building projects, such as the citadel of Sargon II,
which was decorated with large-scale stone sculptures of lamassu and with relief carvings
illustrating the king's prowess in war and hunting.
Monstrous guardians:
Guarding the gate to Sargon's palace were colossal limestone monsters.1-17: Lamassu
(winged, human-headed bull), from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin
(modern Khorsabad), Iraq, ca. 720-705 BCE. Limestone, approx. 13' 10 high.
Louvre, Paris.
1. Lamassu
2. Lamassu
3. Lamassu
Chronicles in stone:
For their palace walls the Assyrian kings commissioned extensive series of narrative
reliefs exalting royal power and piety. The degree of documentary detail in the Assyrian
reliefs is without parallel in the ancient Near East.
1-18: Ashurbanipal hunting lions, relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal,
Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik), Iraq, ca. 645-640 BCE. Gypsum, 5' 4 high. British
Museum, London.
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hunting lions
hunting lions
hunting lions
detail
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NEO-BABYLONIAN ART
With the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Babylonian kings reestablished their power in
the south. The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of antiquity, famous for
its "hanging gardens" and its enormous ziggurat. The city gate was faced with blueglazed bricks and glazed bricks molded into reliefs of animals. The city was captured in
the 6th century BCE and became part of the great Persian Empire. The Persian kings built
a fortified royal palace at Persepolis.
Wondrous Babylon:
King Nebuchadnezzar II, restored Babylon to its rank as one of the great cities of
antiquity.The cities “hanging gardens” were counted as among the Seven Wonders of the
ancient world and its enormous ziggurat was immortalized in the Bible as the Tower of
Babel.
1-19: Ishtar Gate (restored), Babylon, Iraq, ca. 575 BCE. Glazed brick. Staatliche
Museen, Berlin.
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Ishtar Gate
Ishtar Gate - detail
Ishtar Gate
Ishtar Gate
ACHAEMENID PERSIAN ART
Although Nebuchadnezzar boasted of building a wall to surround Babylon to prevent the
invasions, Cyrus of Persia captured the city in the sixth century.
Imperial Persepolis:
The most important source of knowledge about Persian art and architecture is the
ceremonial and administrative complex on the citadel at Persepolis.It was built between
521 and 465 BCE by Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE) and Xerxes (r. 486-465 BCE), successors
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of Cyrus.
521–465 BCE.
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1-20: Persepolis (royal audience hall in the background), Iran, ca.
Persepolis
Persepolis
Persepolis
Persepolis
rendering
Paleolithic Art :: Neolithic Art :: Sumerian Art ::
Akkadian Art :: Babylonian Art ::
Assyrian Art :: Neo-Babylonian Art :: Achaemenid Persian Art :: Egyptian Art :
The Predynastic And Early Dynastic Periods :: The Old Kingdom :: The New Kingdom
EGYPTIAN ART: THE PREDYNASTIC AND EARLY DYNASTIC PERIODS
Evidence of a sophisticated civilization begins to appear on the banks of the Nile around
3500 BCE. In Predynastic times, Egypt was divided geographically and politically into
Upper Egypt (the southern, upstream part of the Nile Valley), which was dry, rocky, and
culturally rustic, and Lower (northern) Egypt, which was opulent, urban, and populous.
Narmer and historical art:1-21: Palette of King Narmer (left, back; right,
front), from Hierakonpolis, Egypt, Predynastic, ca. 3000-2920 BCE. Slate, approx.
2' 1 high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
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palette
palette
palette
palette
palette
Tombs and the afterlife:
Narmer's palette is exceptional among surviving Egyptian artworks because it is
commemorative rather than funerary in nature.
1-22: Section (top), plan (middle), and restored view (bottom) of typical Egyptian
mastaba tombs.
1. tombs
2. tombs
3. tombs
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4. tombs
5. tombs
The first pyramid:
One of the most renowned figures in Egyptian history is Imhotep, the royal builder for
King Djoser (r. 2630-26:11 BCE) of the Third Dynasty.
1-23: IMHOTEP, Stepped Pyramid and mortuary precinct of Djoser, Saqqara,
Egypt, Dynasty III, ca. 2630-2611 BCE.
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Djoser
Djoser
Djoser
Djoser
Djoser
THE OLD KINGDOM
Pyramids and the Sun God:
At Gizeh, the tree Great Pyramids were built in the course of 75 years. They are symbols
of the sun.1-24: Great Pyramids, Gizeh, Egypt, Dynasty IV. From left: Pyramids of
Menkaure, ca. 2490-2472 BCE; Khafre, ca. 2520-2494 BCE; and Khufu, ca. 25512528 BCE.
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Great Pyramids
Great Pyramids
Great Pyramids
Great Pyramids
Great Pyramids
Khafre and the Sphinx:
The funerary complex at the Pyramid of Khafre at Gizeh included the pyramid itself with
the pharaoh's burial chamber, the mortuary temple, the causeway, and the valley temple.
According to one theory, the complex served not only as the king's tomb and temple, but
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also as his palace in the afterlife.
1-25: Great
Sphinx (with Pyramid of Khafre in the background at left), Gizeh, Egypt, Dynasty
IV, ca. 2520-2494 BCE. Sandstone, approx. 65' high, 240' long.
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Great Sphinx
Great Sphinx
Great Sphinx
Great Sphinx
Great Sphinx
Statues for eternity:
As already noted, in Egyptian tombs statues fulfilled an important function. Sculptures
created images of the deceased to serve as abodes for the ka should the mummies be
destroyed. The primary material for funerary objects was stone.1-26: Khafre, from
Gizeh, Egypt, Dynasty IV, ca. 2520-2494 BCE. Diorite, approx. 5' 6 high. Egyptian
Museum, Cairo.
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Khafre
Khafre
Khafre
Khafre
An emotionless embrace:
The seated statue is one of only a small number of basic formulaic types the sculptors of
the Old Kingdom employed to represent the human figure.
1-27: Menkaure and Khamerernebty (?), from Gizeh, Egypt, Dynasty IV, ca. 24902472 BCE. Graywacke, approx. 4' 6 1/2 high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
1. statue
2. statue
3. statue
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4. statue
5. statue
Hunting in the afterlife:
In Egyptian tombs, the deceased were not represented exclusively in freestanding
statuary.
1-28: Ti watching a hippopotamus hunt, relief in the mastaba of Ti, Saqqara, Egypt,
Dynasty V, ca. 2450-2350 BCE. Painted limestone, hunting scene approx. 4' high.
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relief
relief
relief
relief
relief
THE NEW KINGDOM
The Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos from the east.
Soon after Ahmose came to the throne in 1550 BCE, the Hyksos were expelled and Egypt
entered the period known as the New Kingdom.
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Hatshepsut, female pharoah:
New Kingdom architecture is dominated by grandiose temples, often built to honor
pharaohs and queens, as well as gods. The most majestic of these royal mortuary temples,
at Deir el-Bahri, was constructed for the female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, on of the most
remarkable women of the ancient world.
1-29: Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut (with the Middle Kingdom mortuary temple
of Mentuhotep II at left), Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 1473-1458 BCE.
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Deir el-Bahari
Deir el-Bahari
Deir el-Bahari
Deir el-Bahari
Deir el-Bahari
The Colossi of Ramses:
Hatshepsut's mortuary temple never fails to impress visitors by its sheer size, and this is
no less true of the immense rock-cut temple of Ramses II (r. 1290-12:24 B.C.) at Abu
Simbel.
1-30: Temple of Ramses II, Abu Simbel (now relocated), Egypt,
Dynasty XIX, ca. 1290-1224 BCE. Sandstone, colossi approx. 65' high.
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Abu Simbel
Abu Simbel
Abu Simbel
Abu Simbel
Abu Simbel
Immense pylon temples:
Distinct from the pharaonic mortuary temples built during the New Kingdom are the
edifices built to honor one or more of the gods.
1-31: Restored view of the temple of Amen-Re, Karnak, Egypt, begun fifteenth
century BCE (Jean-Claude Golvin).
1. Amen-Re
2. Amen-Re
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3. Amen-Re
4. Amen-Re
5. related
Hypostyle halls:
The dominating feature of the statuary-lined approach to a New Kingdom temple was the
monumental façade of the pylon, with was routinely covered with reliefs glorifying
Egypt's rulers. Inside, was an open court with columns on two or more sides, followed by
a hall between the court and sanctuary, its long axis placed at right angels to the corridor
of the entire building complex. This hypostyle hall (one where columns support the roof)
was crowded with massive columns and roofed by stone slabs carried on lintels. The
lintels rested on cubical blocks that in turn rested on giant capitals.
1-32: Model
of hypostyle hall, temple of Amen-Re, Karnak, Egypt, Dynasty XIX, ca. 1290-1224
BCE. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
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model of hypostyle hall
model of hypostyle hall
model of hypostyle hall
model of hypostyle hall
model of hypostyle hall
Upheaval under Akhenaton:
During the brief heretical episode of Akhenaton , however, profound changes occurred in
Egyptian art. This can be seen in a statue of Akhenaton form the temple of Aton. In this
staute, Akhenaton is given an effeminate body, with curving contours, a long face with
full lips and heavy-lidded eyes. This is vastly different from the heroically proportioned
figures of the pharaoh's predecessors.1-33: Akhenaton, from the temple of Aton,
Karnak, Egypt, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 1353-1335 BCE. Sandstone, approx. 13' high.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
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Akhenaton
Akhenaton
Akhenaton
Akhenaton
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Nefertiti:
The famous painted limestone bust of Akhenaton's queen, Nefertiti, exhibits a similar
expression of entranced musing and almost mannered sensitivity and delicacy of curving
contour. The sculptor seems to have adjusted the actual likeness of his subject to meet the
era's standard of spiritual beauty.
1-34: THUTMOSE, Nefertiti, from Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 13531335 BCE. Painted limestone, approx. 1' 8 high. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
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Nefertiti
Nefertiti
Nefertiti
Nefertiti
Treasures of a boy king:
The legacy of the Amarna style may be seen, however, in the fabulously rich art and
artifacts found in the largely unplundered tomb of Tutankhamen (r. 1333-13:23 BCE),
who was probably Akhenaton's son by a minor wife.
1-35: Innermost coffin of Tutankhamen, from his tomb at Thebes, Egypt, Dynasty
XVIII, ca. 1323 BCE. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones, approx. 6'
1 long. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
1. coffin
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coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
1-36: Death mask of Tutankhamen, from the innermost coffin in his tomb at
Thebes, Egypt, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 1323 BCE. Gold with inlay of semiprecious
stones, 1' 9 1/4 high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
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mask
mask
mask
mask
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