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Chapter 9
Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 9 Overview
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Explaining motivation
Social motives
Hunger
Sexual motivation
Emotion
Explaining Motivation
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Motivation is all the processes that initiate,
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direct and sustain behavior
Motive is the need or desire that energizes
and directs behavior toward a goal
How do the three components of
motivation work together to
influence behavior?
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Activation
– Taking the first steps toward a goal
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Persistence
– Continuing to work toward a goal despite
encountering obstacles
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Intensity
– The energy and attention applied to achieve a
goal
What is the difference between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
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Intrinsic motivation
– Desire to perform an act because it is satisfying
or pleasurable in and of itself
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e.g., A child reads a book because it is fun
Extrinsic motivation
– Desire to perform an act to gain an external
reward or avoid an undesirable consequence
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e.g., A child reads a book to avoid losing TV privileges
How do drive-reduction and arousal
theory explain motivation?
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In many species, behavior is motivated by
instincts
– Fixed behavior patterns characteristic of every
member of a species
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e.g., spiders spinning webs, birds migrating
No true instincts motivate human behavior
But, biological forces underlie some human
behaviors
Drive-reduction theory
The Yerkes-Dodson law
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States that task
performance is best
when arousal level is
appropriate to task
difficulty
– Higher arousal for
simple tasks
– Moderate arousal for
moderate tasks
– Low arousal for
difficult tasks
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Abraham Maslow
proposed that
human needs are
hierarchical
Humans are
motivated by their
lowest unmet need
When lower needs
are met, the
ultimate goal is
self-actualization
According to Maslow, how do
individuals attain selfactualization?
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Maslow studied people who exemplified selfactualization
– e.g., Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert
Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt
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Self-actualizers
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Perceive reality accurately
Believe they have a mission to accomplish
Devote their lives to some larger good
Frequently have peak experiences
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Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony
with the universe
Social Motives
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Motive (such as the needs for
affiliation and achievement) that is
acquired through experience and
interaction with others
How do need for achievement
theory and goal orientation theory
explain achievement motivation?
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Henry Murray developed the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
– A series of pictures of ambiguous situations
– Person taking the test is asked to create a story
about each picture
– The stories are presumed to reveal the test
taker’s needs
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According to Murray, one motive revealed
by the TAT is need for achievement
(n Ach)
– The need to accomplish something difficult and
to perform at a high standard of excellence
How do need for achievement
theory and goal orientation theory
explain achievement motivation?
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Goal orientation theory proposes that
achievement motivation varies according to
which of four goal orientations one adopts
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Mastery approach orientation
Mastery avoidance orientation
Performance avoidance orientation
Performance approach orientation
What kinds of conditions affect
work motivation?
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Work motivation is the conditions
responsible for arousal, direction,
magnitude, and maintenance of effort of
workers
Two effective ways to increase work
motivation
– Reinforcement
– Goal setting
What kinds of conditions affect
work motivation?
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Research suggests that organizations can
enhance employees’ commitment to goals
by
– Having them participate in goal setting
– Making goals specific, attractive, difficult, and
attainable
– Providing feedback on performance
– Rewarding employees for attaining goals
Hunger
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Primary drives are unlearned
motives that serve to satisfy biological
needs, states of tension or arousal
that arise from a biological need and
are unlearned
How do internal and external cues
influence eating behavior?
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External cues that stimulate eating include
– Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food
– Being around others who are eating
– Reaction to boredom, stress, or an unpleasant
emotional state
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External cues that inhibit eating include
– Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food
– Acquired taste aversions
– Reaction to stress or an unpleasant emotional
state
What are the proposed causes of
eating disorders, and how are these
disorders treated?
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Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder
characterized by overwhelming, irrational
fear of gaining weight or becoming fat,
compulsive dieting to the point of
starvation, and excessive weight loss
Causes of this disorder are not well
understood
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But risk factors include being overly worried about
physical appearance, feeling social pressure to be thin,
and obsessive-compulsive disorder
Treatment is difficult
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Psychotherapy, self-help groups, antidepressant
medication, protein supplements can help
What are the proposed causes of
eating disorders, and how are these
disorders treated?
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Bulemia is an eating disorder characterized
by repeated and uncontrolled episodes of
binge eating
Causes not well understood
– People with bulimia have high rates of
obsessive-compulsive disorder and high rates of
self-injurious behavior
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Treatment is difficult
– Behavior modification, cognitive-behavioral
therapy, antidepressant medications are
sometimes effective
Sexual Motivation
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An important motivational domain
more openly discussed now than was
true before Kinsey’s (1948) landmark
research findings became known
How do sexual attitudes and
behavior vary across cultures and
genders?
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Frequency of sexual activity varies across
cultures
– People on some countries report higher levels of
sexual activity
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e.g., Greece, United States
– In other countries, levels of sexual activity are
lower
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e.g., Japan
In all cultures, men and women differ in
attitudes about sex
How do sexual attitudes and
behavior vary across cultures and
genders?
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Survey research suggests that, compared to
women, men
– Think about sex more often
– Are more likely to be interested in purely
physical sex with no emotional involvement
– Are more concerned about sexual fidelity in a
partner, while women are more concerned about
emotional fidelity
How do sexual attitudes and
behavior vary across cultures and
genders?
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Evolutionary psychologists explain
differences between men and women in
terms of parental investment
– Women make large investment in offspring
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As a result, are selective in choosing mates and value
emotional fidelity in a mate
– Men make smaller investment
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So seek more partners and partners with high
reproductive capacity
Emotion
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An identifiable feeling state involving
physiological arousal, a cognitive
appraisal of the situation or stimulus
causing that internal body state, and
an outward behavior expressing the
state
What are the various theories that
have been proposed to explain
emotion?
What are the various theories that
have been proposed to explain
emotion?
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The Cannon Bard theory suggests that
emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted
simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which is
responsible for conscious experience of the
emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous
system, which causes physiological arousal
So, emotions are experienced psychologically
and physiologically at the same time
What are the various theories that
have been proposed to explain
emotion?
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The Schachter-Singer two-factor
theory suggests that two things must
happen for a person to feel an emotion
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There must be physiological arousal
There must be a cognitive interpretation of the
arousal, so the person can label it as a specific
emotion
What are the various theories that
have been proposed to explain
emotion?
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The Lazarus theory proposes that a
cognitive appraisal is the first step in an
emotional response, and that all other
aspects of an emotion, including
physiological arousal, depend on it
Which aspects of emotion are
universal, and which vary across
cultures?
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Basic emotions are unlearned and
universal
– They are found in all cultures
– Emerge in children according to a predictable
developmental timetable
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Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy or
happiness, and sadness or distress are
usually considered the basic emotions
– They are reflected in the same facial expressions
in all cultures
– But, cultures have very different display rules
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Rules that dictate how emotions should be expressed
and when and where their expression is appropriate
Which aspects of emotion are
universal, and which vary across
cultures?
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Facial-feedback hypothesis is the idea
that muscular movements involved in
certain facial expressions produce the
corresponding emotions
Research supports this hypothesis
– e.g., if you are angry and you adopt an angry
expression, you will feel even angrier
In what ways do males and females
differ with regard to emotions?
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When betrayed
– Men are more likely to feel angry
– Women are more likely to feel sad or
disappointed
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Men are more likely to express anger in
public
– In private, men and women do not differ
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Research suggests that women experience
more intense and frequent emotions than
men
– With the exception of anger