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1/28/2015
Overview of the Reformation
Unit 2.1
The Reformation
I. The Protestant Reformation
A. Causes of the Reformation
1. Crises of the Later Middle Ages
hurt the prestige of the Church
a. Babylonian Captivity, 14th
century
b. Great Schism, 1377-1417
c. Failure of the Conciliar
Movement in 15th and early
16th centuries
 Beginning of modern Europe; profoundly
influenced development of western
civilization
 Protestantism adopted by states in
Northern Europe
 Religious enthusiasm rekindled
 Catholic Counter Reformation
responded to Protestant challenge, with
some success
 Destroyed religious unity of W. Europe &
initiated period of devastating religious
wars in 16th & 17th centuries
2. Corruption:
a. simony: sale of church offices
b. pluralism: church officials holding
two offices at one time
c. absenteeism: an official not
participating in benefices but
receiving payments and privileges
d. sale of indulgences: people paid the
Church to absolve their sins or sins
of their loved ones
e. nepotism: favoring family members
in the appointment of Church offices
f. moral decline of the papacy: certain
popes and priests had sexual affairs
g. clerical ignorance: illiteracy rampant
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3. Critics of the Church: emphasized a
personal relationship with God as
primary
a. John Wyclif (1329-1384): England
• Stated the Bible was the sole
authority
• Stressed personal communion
with God
• Diminished the
importance of the
sacraments
• Translated the
Bible into English
• His followers were Lollards
b. John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
•Ideas influenced by Wyclif
•Led a nationalist movement in
Bohemia (modern-day Czech
Republic)
• Burned at the stake for his
“heretical” views
• Hussites: followers
of Hus who staged
large rebellions in
the 14th century
c. Brethren of Common Life: Thomas
á Kempis (1380-1471)
• Imitation of Christ, 1418
• Encouraged Christians to live life
simply and make religion a personal
experience
d. Erasmus, In Praise of Folly (1509)
• Criticized corruption in the Church
and the hypocrisy of the clergy
• “Erasmus laid the egg that
Luther
hatched”
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4. Impact of Renaissance humanism
a. Christian humanists of the
Northern Renaissance criticized the
Church and questioned the Latin
Vulgate
•Textual criticism and new translations of the
Bible undermined Catholic authority
† Valla: Donation of Constantine
† Jacques LeFevre d‘Etaples
† Erasmus
† Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros
in Spain
II.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
A. Background
1. Augustinian monk; taught at the
University of Wittenburg in Saxony
2. Johann Tetzel encouraged by Pope
Leo X to sell indulgences
a. Indulgences were payments to
reduce a person’s punishment in
Purgatory, or
perhaps the pain of
a loved one who
had already died
b. Italian Renaissance’s worldly influence
on church leaders drew criticism
c. Zwingli was trained as a humanist and
as a preacher used Erasmus’ edition of
the Greek New Testament
d. John Calvin was influenced by
humanism, especially Erasmus
e. After Luther’s reformation humanists
turned many monasteries into schools
f. The printing press facilitated the
spread of humanist ideas
b. Tetzel: “As soon as the coin in the coffer
rings, a soul from purgatory springs.”
“A Question to the Mintmaker,” c. 1530, woodcut by Jörg (Jeorg/Jan)
Breu the Elder
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c. Pope Leo X was looking for additional
revenues to pay for the construction of
Michelangelo’s dome atop St. Peter’s
Basilica
d. Tetzel’s selling of indulgences had
become egregious
Raphael: Pope Leo X
with Cardinals Giulio
de' Medici and Luigi
de' Rossi
1518-19
B. Ninety-five Theses, Oct. 31, 1517,
Wittenburg Church
1. Luther criticized the selling of
indulgences and questioned the
scriptural authority of the pope to
grant indulgences
2. Printing press spread Luther’s work
with astonishing speed
?
C. Luther challenges Church authority
1. Initially, the pope saw the debate over
indulgences as relatively insignificant
2. 1518, Luther defied pope’s order to
stop his crusade
a. Protected by Frederick the Wise of
Saxony
b. At this point, Luther
was only interested in
reforming the
Church
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3. Debate with Johann Eck at Leipzig,
1519
a. Luther denied the infallibility of
the pope and of a general council
b. Claimed Church erred when it
executed John Hus
c. Represented the point of no return
for Luther
Eck vs. Luther
4. 1520, Luther published his theology of
reform
a. Salvation through faith alone
† Rejected “good works” as the
means to salvation
b. Bible was the ultimate authority.
c. Baptism and Communion were the
only valid sacraments.
† Rejected five of the Seven
Sacraments
† Rejected transubstantiation
† Advocated consubstantiation
-- “Real Presence”
This is the title page of
a book written by
Luther, Babylonian
Captivity of the Church,
in which Luther only
recognizes two of the
seven Catholic
sacraments
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d. The church consisted of a
“priesthood of all believers”; not a
hierarchical structure
e. Criticized sale of indulgences and
simony
f. Encouraged Germany princes to
reform the Church in their states
g. Rejected monastic tenets of poverty,
chastity and obedience
4. Luther excommunicated by Pope
Leo X in 1520
-- Luther threw the papal bull that
excommunicated him into the fire
6. Diet of Worms (1521)
a. Tribunal of the HRE with power
to outlaw and sentence execution
b. Charles V demanded Luther
recant his writings
c. Luther refused
Two woodcuts included in Luther’s pamphlet,
Passional Christi und Antichristi
Originally drawn by Lucas Cranach the Elder
"Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”
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d. Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed
as a heretic by the HRE
e. Luther was kidnapped and taken
to Frederick the Wise’s castle
where he was protected.
"Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”
III. Political battle over Lutheranism in
Germany
A. Spread of Lutheranism
1. Many northern German states
switched to Lutheranism
a. German princes were politically
motivated
b. Southern Germany remained
Catholic
2. Denmark and Sweden became
Lutheran states
3. Lutheranism did not spread much
beyond these regions
D. Translated Bible into German
vernacular in 1523
† Democratized religion
E. Confessions of Augsburg (1530)
1. Written by Philip Melanchthon
2. Attempt at compromise between
Lutheran and Catholic princes
failed
3. Became official statement of
Lutheran Church
a. Salvation through faith alone
b. Bible is the sole authority
c. “Priesthood of all believers”
B. Charles V sought to stop the spread of
Protestantism and preserve the
hegemony of Catholicism
1. In this sense, Charles was similar to a
medieval emperor
2. The Turkish threat in Hungary and
his wars with France diverted his
attention
Emperor’s Banner
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C. German Peasants Revolt (1524-1525)
1. Twelve Articles, 1525: peasants end of
serfdom and tithes, and other feudal
practices that oppressed the peasantry
-- Many peasants
were inspired by
Luther
Twelve Articles of the
Swabian Peasants
pamphlet, 1525
Map of
Peasant
Revolts
2. Luther’s views on the peasant
movement were conservative
a. He believed people should obey their
secular rulers
b. Although he sympathized with some
peasant aims, he abhorred their
violence
3. As many as 100,000 died in the revolts
-- Both Lutheran and Catholic forces
took part in squashing the revolt
D. Northern Germany
1. League of Schmalkalden, 1531
a. Formed by newly Protestant
(Lutheran) princes to defend
themselves from Charles V’s drive
to re-Catholicize Germany
b. Francis I of France allied with the
League (despite being Catholic)
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2. Hapsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between
1521 and 1555 between France and the
HRE in Italy
a. France sought to keep Germany
divided.
b. Resulted in the long-term political
fragmentation of Germany
c. Catholic unity in Germany never again
occurred
E. Peace of Augsburg, 1555
1. Temporarily ended the struggle in
Germany over Lutheranism
2. Provisions
a. Princes in Germany could
choose either Lutheranism or
Catholicism
b. Protestants living in Catholic
states were allowed to move to
Protestant states; the same was
true of Catholics in Protestant
states
3. Result: permanent religious
division of Germany
3. Charles V finally defeated the League
in 1547 but Lutheranism had
already taken hold permanently
IV. The Spread of Protestantism
A. Anabaptists (formed in Zurich, 1525)
1. Characteristics
a. Voluntary association of believers
with no connection or allegiance
to any states
b. Did not believe in childhood
baptism.
c. Millenarians who believed the end
of the world was near
d. Rejected the idea of the Trinity.
e. Some historians see them as
the “Left Wing” of the
Reformation.
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2. 1532, a radical group of revolutionary
Anabaptists took control of Münster
a. Led by John of Leyden
b. Polygamy was instituted
c. Women also served as leaders
d. All books burned except the Bible
e. Some Lutherans and Catholics were
killed.
f. Tragedy at Münster, 1535*:
combined armies of Catholic and
Protestant forces captured the city
and executed the Anabaptist leaders
3. Long-term impact of Anabaptists
a. Mennonites: founded by Dutch
leader Menno Simons (1496-1561)
-- Emphasized pacifism
b. Quakers in England shared similar
beliefs.
c. Unitarians (who rejected the
Trinity) were also descendants of
the Anabaptists.
4. Luther did not believe in the
legitimacy of any other faith except
mainstream Protestantism.
The bodies of
executed
Anabaptist
leaders were
publicly
displayed in iron
cages hanging
from St.
Lambert’s
church for many
years.
B. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
1. Student of humanism
2. Adopted Lutheranism in Zurich,
Switzerland; established a theocracy
3. In contrast to Luther, he saw the
Eucharist as only symbolic.
4. Colloquy of Marburg
(1529): Zwingli officially
split with Luther over
the Eucharist.
5. Luther’s Augsburg
Confession excluded
non-Lutheran reformers
such as Zwingli.
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C. Calvinism (most significant of the new
Protestant sects)
1. John Calvin (1509-1564)
a. Frenchman; studied to be a priest
and later trained as a lawyer
b. Influenced by humanism, especially
Erasmus
c. Exiled to Switzerland
due to his reform
ideas
2. Institutes of the Christian Religion
(1536)
a. Calvin’s foundational work
b. Pre-destination: Since God is allknowing, He already knows who is
going to Heaven or Hell.
• Thus, “good works” not sufficient for
salvation and there is no free will since
God has already made His decision
• Yet, good works are a sign that one has
been chosen for salvation.
• God reveals if one has been chosen for
salvation through a conversion experience
c. The “elect” are church members
who have had their conversion
experience and should become
model Christians: “visible saints”
St. Pierre Cathedral, where
Calvin preached in
Geneva.
3. Calvin established a theocracy in
Geneva by 1540
a. Geneva became the new center of
the Reformation in Europe.
b. Like Zwingli in Zurich, Calvin
believed church and city should
combine to enforce Christian
behavior.
c. Only those committed to
following Calvinism were allowed
to live in the city.
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4. Calvinists were the most militant
and uncompromising of all
Protestants.
a. The Consistory: a judiciary made
up of lay elders had the power to
impose harsh penalties for those
who disobeyed God’s law
5. Protestant work ethic: Calvinists later
stressed the importance of hard work
and accompanying financial success as
a sign that God was pleased
6. Spread of Calvinism: greater impact on
future generations than Lutheranism
a. Scotland: Presbyterianism
established in 1560
by John Knox
(1505-1572)
b. Michael Servetus, a Unitarian
humanist from Spain, was
burned at the stake in 1553 for his
denial of the Trinity.
b. France: Huguenots suppressed by
Catholic authorities
c. Netherlands: Dutch Reformed
Church challenged Catholicism
d. England: Puritans were eventually
persecuted by the Anglican Church
e. Countries to where Calvinism did
not spread:
-- Ireland
-- Spain
-- Italy
-- All three were heavily Catholic
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The Protestant and Catholic Reformations
2. William Tyndale, a humanist,
translated the Bible into English (1526).
a. Tyndale hunted down and executed
in
1536 after thousands of English Bibles
made their way to England
b. Tyndale refused to recognize Henry VIII’s
leadership of the Anglican Church
V. The English Reformation
A. Early English reformers
1. John Wyclif’s followers—the
Lollards—still existed in England in
the 16th century.
B. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)
1. Had earlier been a conservative
Catholic who criticized Luther
a. Defense of the Seven Sacraments
attacked Luther’s views
b. Pope gave him the title:
“Defender of
the Faith”
Portrait by Hans
Holbein the Younger, c.
1537
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2. Henry sought to annul his marriage
to Catharine of Aragon because she
could not bear a son.
a. Only one daughter, Mary, had
survived after five child births.
b. Having a son was necessary to
preserve the Tudor dynasty.
c. Henry believed God
was punishing him
for marrying his
brother’s widow.
d. Henry was also enamored with his
mistress, Anne Boleyn
Catherine of
Aragon
C. Church of England (Anglican Church)
1. Pope did not grant Henry his
annulment.
2. Archbishop of Canterbury Cardinal
Wolsey failed to get papal approval.
3. Thomas Cranmer
replaced Wolsey and
convinced Henry to
break away from the
Catholic Church so
he could marry Anne
Boleyn.
4. Henry broke away from the Catholic
Church and formed the Church of
England
a. Act of Supremacy, 1534: Henry VIII
became head of the Church of
England
b. Catholic lands were confiscated.
c. Monasteries were closed down.
d. Act of Succession (1534): all of the
king’s subjects had to take an oath
of loyalty to the king as head of the
Anglican church
-- Henry ordered the execution of
Thomas More for refusing the oath.
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5. Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536: popular
opposition in the north to Henry’s
reformation led to the largest multiclass rebellion in English history
6. In total, Henry had six wives during
his reign.
a. Anne Boleyn
executed in 1536
b. His third wife, Jane
Seymore, had a son,
Edward VI, who
succeeded Henry
in 1547 Henry VIII in
7. Statute of the Six Articles, 1539
† Anglican Church maintained most
of the Catholic doctrines
1542
D. Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)
1. Age 10 when he became king; strong
Protestants ruled on his behalf
2. Edward adopted Calvinism
a. New practices
• Clergy could
marry
• Iconic images
removed from
churches
• Communion by
the laity was
expanded
b. New doctrines (similar to Luther)
• Salvation by faith alone
• Denial of transubstantiation
• Only two sacraments: baptism and
communion
3. Edward’s premature death in 1553
led to a religious struggle between
Protestants and Catholics.
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E. Mary Tudor (r.1553-1558) tried
unsuccessfully to reimpose Catholicism
1. Daughter of Henry VIII and
Catherine of Aragon
2. Had earlier married Philip II of Spain
3. Rescinded Henry’s
and Edward’s
religious
legislation
4. Marian exiles: Protestants fled
England fearing Mary’s persecution
5. 300 people were executed including
bishops and Cardinal Cranmer
-- Opponents called
her “Bloody
Mary”
F. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) “Virgin Queen”
1. Daughter of Henry & Anne Boleyn
a. Catholics saw her as “illegitimate”
b. She held strongly Protestant views
2. Effectively oversaw the development
of Protestantism in
England
a. Politique: practical
politician who
navigated a middle
ground between
Protestantism and
Anglicanism
b. Puritans sought to
reform the church
Elizabeth I c. 1575
3. “Elizabethan Settlement”: Elizabeth
and Parliament required conformity to
the Church of England but people
were allowed to worship Protestantism
and Catholicism privately
a. Anglican church resembled
Lutheranism
b. Some church practices resembled
Catholic practices and rituals
-- Book of Common Prayer instituted in
1553
c. Catholicism remained, especially
among the gentry, but could not be
practiced openly.
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d. Services given in English
e. Monasteries were not reestablished
f. Clergy was allowed to marry
g. Everyone was required to attend
Anglican church services (fined if
absent)
The Execution of Mary Stuart
4. Thirty-Nine Articles (1563): Defined
the creed of the Anglican Church
-- Followed Protestant doctrine but
vague enough to accommodate
most of the English, except Puritans
5. Catholics unsuccessfully plotted
assassination attempts and invasions
against Elizabeth
a. Sought to place Mary Stuart,
Queen of Scots on the throne
b. To relieve the threat, Elizabeth
agreed to execute Mary
VI. Impact of the Reformation on
Women
A. Protestant women
1. Luther believed that a woman’s
occupation was in the home
2. Calvin believed in the subjugation of
women to preserve moral order
3. Protestant churches had greater
official control over marriage than did
the Catholic church
a. Suppressed common law marriages
(which were common in Catholic
countries)
b. Catholic governments followed the
Protestant example
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4. Marriage became more
companionate, emphasizing the love
relationship between man and wife.
a. Luther and his wife, Katherina
von Bora, shared this view
b. Luther believed sex was an act to
be enjoyed by a husband and
wife; not just an act
of procreation
5. Increased emphasis on teaching
people to read the Bible resulted in
increased literacy for women.
a. Mothers were expected to teach
their children to read.
b. Schools for girls were developed.
c. Philip Melanchthon: important
in establishing
schools for girls
in the Protestant
German states
6. Protestant women lost opportunities
in church service that many Catholic
women pursued (e.g. becoming
nuns).
7. Women gradually lost rights to
manage their own property or to
make legal transactions in their own
name.
B. Catholic women
1. Women continued to enjoy
opportunities in the church through
religious orders.
2. Angela Merici (1474-1540)
a. Founded the Ursuline Order of
Nuns in the 1530s to provide
education and religious training
b. Sought to combat heresy through
Christian education
c. Spread to France and the New
World
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3. Teresa de Ávila (1515-1582)
a. Major Spanish leader of the
reform movement for monasteries
and convents
b. Preached an individual could have
a relationship with God through
prayer and contemplation.
Portrait of Teresa
de Ávila, Peter
Paul Rubens, 1615
VII. Catholic Reformation (Counter
Reformation)
Background: Response to Protestantism,
or parallel reform movement?
1. Catholic Reformation & Counter
Reformation not mutually
exclusive.
2. Successful in stemming tide of
Protestantism.
Memory Device for the Catholic
Reformation: SAINT PAUL
• S ociety of Jesus
• A buses reformed in Church practices
• I ndex of Prohibited Books
• N o significant change in Church doctrine
• T rent, Council of
• P ope Paul III
• A nti-Protestant
• U rsuline Order of Nuns
• L atin Vulgate
A. Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549): Most
important pope in reforming the
Church and challenging Protestantism
1. Rather than instituting new
doctrines, he sought to improve
church discipline through existing
doctrine.
2. Response to gains of
Protestantism and
response to critics
within the church
who demanded
Portrait by Titian,
reforms
1545-56
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B. Council of Trent (three sessions
during 1545-1563): established
Catholic dogma for the next four
centuries
1. Equal validity of Scriptures, Church
traditions, and writings of Church
fathers
2. Salvation through “good works” and
faith
3. All seven sacraments were valid;
transubstantiation was reaffirmed
4. Monasticism, celibacy of the clergy,
and purgatory reaffirmed
C. New Religious Orders.
1. Jesuits (Society of Jesus) – founded
in 1540
a. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
† Organized Jesuits in military
fashion
† Spiritual Exercises: Loyola’s
guidebook to
train
Jesuits
5. Index of Forbidden Books
a. Books that supported
Protestantism or overly criticized
the Church (e.g. Erasmus) were
banned from Catholic countries
b. Anyone possessing books listed in
the Index could be punished
severely
6. Church reforms: curtailed abuses in
sale of indulgences, simony curtailed,
bishops were given greater control
over the clergy, seminaries
established to train priests
b. Three main Jesuit goals:
† Reform the church through
education
† Missionary work to pagan
peoples
† Fight
Protestantism
Ignatius Loyola,
Portrait by Peter
Paul Rubens
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c. 1542, Jesuits controlled the
Spanish & Italian Inquisitions at
the behest of Paul III: Sacred
Congregation of the Holy Office
† Spain: persecuted Moriscos and
Jews suspected of backsliding
to their original faiths
† Italy: Pope Paul IV issued a
papal bull accusing Jews of
killing Christ and placing them
in ghettos in the Papal States
† Persecution of Jews throughout
Europe resulted
D. Baroque Art (as part of the Catholic
Reformation)
1. Began in Catholic Reformation
countries to teach in a concrete and
emotional way and demonstrate the
glory and power of the Catholic
Church
a. Encouraged by the papacy and
the Jesuits
b. Prominent in France, Flanders,
Austria, southern Germany, and
Poland
2. Spread later to Protestant countries:
Netherlands, northern Germany,
and England
3. Sought to overwhelm the viewer:
emphasized grandeur, emotion,
movement, spaciousness, and unity
surrounding a certain theme
4. Architecture and sculpture
a. Baroque architecture reflected the
image and power of absolute
monarchs and the Catholic
Church
The Triumph of the Immaculate,
by Paolo de Matteis (1716)
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The Night Watch, by
Rembrandt van Rijn (1642)
b. Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1650)
personified baroque architecture
and sculpture
• Colonnade for piazza in front of
St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome was
his greatest architectural
achievement (1656-1667)
Bentheim Castle, by Jacob
Izaakszoon van Ruisdael (1653)
Bernini’s fountain in
St. Peter’s Square,
1675
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• He sculpted the incredible St.
Peter’s Baldachin, the canopy
over the high altar of St. Peter’s
Basilica (1624-1633)
• His altarpiece sculpture, The
Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes
tremendous emotion (1647-52)
5. Baroque painting
a. Characteristics
• Stressed broad areas of light
and shadow rather than on
linear arrangements of the
High Renaissance
• Color was an important
element as it appealed to the
senses and more true to nature.
• Not concerned with clarity of
detail as with overall dynamic
effect
• Designed to give a spontaneous
personal experience
b. Caravaggio (1571-1610), Italian
• Perhaps the first important
painter of the Baroque era
• Depicted highly emotional
scenes
• Used sharp contrasts of light
and dark to create drama
(tenebrism)
• Criticized by some for using
ordinary people as models for
his depictions of Biblical scenes
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Caravaggio, The
Calling of St.
Matthew, 15991600
c. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640),
Flemish painter
• Worked for the Hapsburg court
in Brussels (the capital of the
Spanish Netherlands)
• Emphasized color and sensuality;
animated figures and
melodramatic contrasts;
monumental size.
• Nearly half of his works dealt
with Christian subjects.
• Known for his sensual nudes as
Roman goddesses, water nymphs,
and saints and angels.
Peter Paul Rubens,
The Elevation of the
Cross, 1610-1611
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