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Learning and Conditioning Notes
Classical Conditioning
1. Basic Idea
(a) learning by implicit associations between unrelated stimuli
(b) emotional and physiological responses
2. Model
(a) unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
(b) neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
(c) Pairing the unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus causes the neutral stimulus to
evoke the unconditioned/conditioned response
(d) Three phases
i. acquisition
ii. conditioned phase
iii. extinction
3. Pavlov
(a) trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing the bell with food
(b) discovered that a conditioned response will diminish if the US is separated from the CS
(extinction)
4. Watson/Raynor
(a) induced a panic response in a child by pairing white rats with a loud, startling sound
(b) determined that emotional responses can be conditioned
(c) Stimulus generalization
i. during acquisition, a conditioned response to the CS and to “related” stimuli such as the
environment in which conditioning takes place
(d) Stimulus Discrimination
i. during extinction, separation of the CS from related stimuli, resulting in less frequent
CR
5. Extinction
(a) Separation of CS from US results in diminished CR, re-introduction of US strengthens
response
(b) Extinction must occur in the presence of the CS
6. Therapeutic Applications
(a) counter-conditioning – Mary Cover Jones
i. re-associating the tainted CS with a positive emotional experience, in an attempt to
replace the anxiety response
ii. may not be effective
(b) Systematic Desensitization
i. anxiety hierarchy
A. ranking anxiety-inducing stimuli and approaching them one at a time in a systematic
manner
ii. progressive relaxation
A. training techniques for anxiety management and distress tolerance
iii. Using these techniques to expose client to the CS while allowing them time to work
through the anxiety and reduce their stress
(c) Total Immersion
i. Exposing the client to the worst case scenario so that they experience panic, but are
unable to withdraw from the situation, thereby weakening the CR
7. Biological Preparedness
(a) certain associations are more easily trained than others, especially those having to do with
survival and which have a long evolutionary history
i. heights, water, snakes, spiders, certain smells and tastes, lightning, etc
ii. aversive conditioning seeks to pair an aversive response with a CS in order to induce
avoidance of the CS
iii. Also occurs in cases of food poisoning
8. Cognitive Factors
(a) Reliable signals
i. CS is a “signal” which alerts the client to the fact that the US “follows;” extinction is
then a matter of the client’s beliefs about the relationship between US and CS
Operant Conditioning
1. Basic Idea
(a) Changing overt behaviors (operants) by understanding and manipulating the consequences
of the behavior; positive consequences strengthen behaviors and negative consequences
weaken them
2. Model
(a) antecedent (context)
(b) behavior
(c) consequence (reinforcement or punishment)
3. James, Hall, Thorndike
(a) James: Functionalism – behavior is adaptive; successful behaviors survive
(b) Hall and Thorndike
i. use of behavioral principles in education; Thorndike’s “satisfying state of affairs”
4. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
(a) Describes and demonstrates the impact of different reinforcers in training animal and human
behavior
5. Types of Reinforcement/Punishment
(a) Positive Reinforcement
(b) Positive Punishment
(c) Negative Reinforcement
(d) Negative Punishment
6. Schedules of Reinforcement
(a) Extinction of a conditioned behavior depends on the training method
(b) Continuous Reinforcement
i. fast learning, fast extinction
(c) Partial Reinforcement
i. slower learning, slower extinction
ii. Fixed Ratio and Interval
iii. Variable Ratio and Interval
7. Shaping
(a) Step-by-step rewarding of behaviors that approach the desired goal
(b) useful for animals, children, adults who are resistant to behavioral change
(c) covert, rather than overt
8. Therapeutic Techniques
(a) Token Economies (behavior management)
i. use of scheduled rewards to change behavior
ii. especially useful with negative reinforcement/punishment loops
(b) EX/RP (anxiety and phobias)
i. exposure to the anxiety-provoking stimulus followed by response prevention; teaches
distress tolerance while also replacing maladaptive anxiety responses
Observational Learning and Social Learning Theory
1. Observational Learning
(a) Basic Idea: vicarious reinforcement
i. Bandura discovers that reinforcement can occur through other people (models) and not
just as a result of things that happen to us directly
(b) modeling
i. models must be relatable. Effectiveness of training depends on the client being able to
place themselves in the model’s shoes
ii. implications for advertising?
(c) importance of social influence
i. advertising
ii. crowd management
iii. crime deterrence
iv. promulgation of social norms
2. Social Learning Theory
(a) reciprocal determinism
i. social, behavioral, and cognitive factors all contribute to which behavior is selected
(b) Integration w/r/t Operant Conditioning
i. values
A. reinforcers are only successful if the client values them; a reinforcer may be positive
or it may be a punishment depending on who the client is
ii. beliefs
A. beliefs about the relationship between reinforcers effect client behaviors (see below)
B. The way we INTEGRATE all of this information determines more about our
behavior than punishment and reward alone
(c) Rotter, Seligman, Linehan, Bandura
i. Rotter: locus of control
ii. Bandura: self-efficacy
iii. Seligman: learned helplessness
iv. Linehan: Dialectal Behavioral Therapy
(d) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
i. Addresses the integrative processes by which we understand how our behavior is
reinforced in a broader social setting.
Homework Questions for LEARNING AND CONDITIONING
 Describe the parts of the A-B-C model of operant conditioning
 give examples of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and
negative punishment
 Describe an EX/RP plan and what it might be used for
 Describe how you might treat a fear of flying using each of the three methods discussed in
class.
 Give an example of how beliefs or cognitions influence whether or not a reinforcer is effective