Download PHOENICIAN EXPLANATION: EXAMINATION OF PUBLIC

PHOENICIAN EXPLANATION: EXAMINATION OF
PUBLIC INTERPRETATION FOR THE BAJO DE LA
CAMPANA SHIPWRECK EXCAVATION
Joshua Y. Jones
Department of Archaeology
Flinders University, South Australia
August 2012
DECLARATION
I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement
any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university, and to the best of my knowledge and belief does not contain
any information previously published except where due reference is
made in text.
Joshua Yarnall Jones
September 2012
2
ABSTRACT
‘Phoenician Explanation: Examination of Public Interpretation for the Bajo de
la Campana Shipwreck Excavation’ investigates the use of a naturalistic paradigm to
evaluate the public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation
near Cartagena, Spain. The Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) working with
The Spanish Ministry of Culture began studies of the site in 2007 with a preliminary
investigation to determine the site’s potential. Follow up excavations occurred from
2008–2011 and have produced a plethora of artefacts from three distinct ancient
vessels. The focus of this thesis is the Phoenician vessel and the use of public
interpretation by the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology (ARQUA) in
Cartagena, Spain. The public interpretation was assessed by comparing
interpretation strategies of four case studies, selected by commonalities to the Bajo
de la Campana excavation. The case studies were evaluated under a post-processual
perception and were utilized to compare the interpretation of the Bajo de la
Campana shipwreck with other successful projects.
A naturalistic paradigm was utilized to study the ARQUA museum in
Cartagena, Spain. A naturalistic approach utilizes no particular strategy but rather is
formed naturally from what the researcher observes in the field. Conclusions are
drawn from field notes and comparisons to other known successes.
This thesis adds to the current knowledge of public interpretation in the field
of maritime archaeology and aids in the connection between fieldwork and public
learning.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration………………………………………………………………………………………………… Pg.2
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 3
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………... Pg. 4
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg. 7
Chapter 1: Introduction and thesis aims……………………………………………………… Pg. 10
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………. Pg. 11
Statement of Purpose……………………………………………………………………… Pg. 12
Case Studies…………………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 14
Defining Public Interpretation………………………………………………………… Pg. 16
Post-processual Archaeology, Museum Display Theory and
Naturalistic Paradigm ……………………………………………………………………. Pg. 18
Introduction to Phoenician History…………………………………………………. Pg. 20
Approach and Methods…………………………………………………………………… Pg. 22
Significance……………………………………………………………………………………. Pg. 23
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………. Pg. 23
Chapter Outline……………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 24
Chapter 2: Post-Processual Archaeology, Museum Display Theory and
Naturalistic Paradigm……………………………………………………………………. Pg. 25
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...... Pg. 26
Post-processual Archaeology…………………………………………………………. Pg. 26
Museum Display Theory………………………………………………………………… Pg. 27
Naturalistic Paradigm…………………………………………………………………..... Pg. 29
Theory Application to this Thesis…………………………………………………… Pg. 30
4
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 31
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….
Pg. 32
Case Study Analysis……………………………………………………………………….
Pg. 32
Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Excavation Analysis………………………..
Pg.32
Chapter 4: The Uluburun Shipwreck…………………………………………………………
Pg. 35
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….
Pg. 36
History of the Uluburun Shipwreck Excavation………………………………
Pg. 36
Archaeological Finds……………………………………………………………………..
Pg. 36
Public Interpretation Tactics…………………………………………………………
Pg. 38
Significance…………………………………………………………………………………..
Pg. 42
What Can We Take Away From the Uluburun Shipwreck
Excavation……………………………………………………………………………………
Pg. 43
Chapter 5: La Belle…………………………………………………………………………………..
Pg. 44
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….
Pg. 45
History of the La Belle Excavation…………………………………………………..
Pg. 45
Summary of Finds…………………………………………………………………………
Pg. 47
Public Interpretation Tactics…………………………………………………………
Pg. 48
Significance…………………………………………………………………………………... Pg. 50
What Can We Take Away From the La Belle Excavation?…………………
Pg. 51
Chapter 6: The Pepper Wreck Shipwreck…………………………………………………… Pg. 52
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg. 53
History of the Pepper Wreck Excavation…………………………………………. Pg. 53
Archaeological Finds……………………………………………………………………… Pg. 54
Public Interpretation Tactics………………………………………………………….. Pg. 55
Significance…………………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 56
What Can We Take Away From the Pepper Wreck Excavation…………. Pg. 57
Chapter 7: The Kyrenia Shipwreck……………………………………………………………. Pg. 59
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg. 60
History of the Kyrenia Ship Excavation…………………………………………… Pg. 60
Archaeological Finds………………………………………………………………………. Pg. 61
Public Interpretation Tactics……………………………………………………………. Pg. 62
5
Significance…………………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 64
What Can We Take Away From the Kyrenia Ship Excavation…………… Pg. 65
Chapter 8: The Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck and the ARQUA Museum……… Pg. 66
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… Pg. 67
History of the Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Excavation………………… Pg. 67
Archaeological Finds……………………………………………………………………… Pg. 68
ARQUA………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg. 69
ARQUA Exhibit Observation and Analysis……………………………………….. Pg. 71
Chapter 9: Interpretation and analyses …………………………………………………...... Pg. 88
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………
Pg. 89
Public Interpretation Techniques analysed ……………………………………
Pg. 89
The ARQUA Museum Public Interpretation Tactics…………………………
Pg. 93
Chapter 10: Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..
Pg. 96
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………
Pg. 97
Interpretation vs Outreach…………………………………………………………..
Pg. 97
Interpretation of the Case Studies and Their Application to the
Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Excavated Material…………………………
Pg. 98
Thesis Aims Revisited……………………………………………………………………
Pg.100
The Future of Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Interpretation…………… Pg.101
Conclusions and Final Thoughts………………………………………………….…. Pg.103
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………….. Pg.104
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………. Pg.105
6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Google Earth image of Spain displaying the approximate location of the
Bajo de La Campana excavation site. Google Earth 2012.
Figure 2: Close up Google Earth image of the Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Area,
and the ARQUA museum. Google Earth 2012.
Figure 3: Map of Phoenician trade routes and major ports. University of Texas 2007.
Figure 4: Uluburun exhibit in the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology.
Archaeological Institute of America 2012.
Figure 5: A reconstruction of the Uluburun ship sunk for dive tourism and public
interpretation. Vasquez 2009, Photo courtesy of Coskun Tezic.
Figure 6: Museum exhibit cover photo showing artefacts, the MET and a diver
working on the Uluburun site. Institute of Nautical Archaeology 2008.
Figure 7: Cofferdam excavation site of La Belle. Maritime Executive 2012.
Figure 8: Reconstruction of La Belle hull in conservation tank at Texas A&M
University. Texas Parks and Wildlife 2001.
Figure 9: La Belle reconstruction for public interpretation. Grieco 2000.
Figure 10: Artefact display of finds from the Pepper Wreck excavation in the
collection of the Musue Nacional de Arqueologia and Arqueonáutica. Texas A&M
Department of Anthropology 2008.
Figure 11: Three-dimensional display of the Pepper Wreck digital reconstruction.
Wells 2008.
Figure 12: Digital reconstruction of the Pepper Wreck to show internal holds. Wells
2008.
Figure 13: Digital reconstruction of the Pepper Wreck to show ship construction.
Wells 2008.
Figure 14: The Kyrenia ship’s hull remains located in the Kyrenia Shipwreck Exhibit,
Girne Castle, Cyprus. Cypnet 2012.
Figure 15: Kyrenia III replica housed in Fukouka, Japan. The Kyrenia Shipwreck
Project 2000.
Figure 16: Kerynia Liberty on a test run. Archaeology News Network 2012.
7
Figure 17: Entrance to the ARQUA museum. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 18: LCD display screen displaying underwater work with divers and bubbles
in the background providing the feeling of being underwater. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 19: UNESCO Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage display which
explains the importance of the convention and its purpose in the protection of
underwater cultural heritage. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 20: Mazarrón shipwreck site reconstruction for public interpretation. Joshua
Jones 2011.
Figure 21: Close up of artefacts on Mazarrón shipwreck reconstruction.
Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 22: Interactive display explaining the laws of dive physics and what
archaeologist must overcome working underwater. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 23: Anchor display showing the stages before and after conservation. Joshua
Jones 2011.
Figure 24: Amphora display showing the states before and after conservation.
Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 25: Display demonstrating what ivory tusks look like before and after
conservation. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 26: Map showing the trade routes of the Phoenicians and their influence in
the Mediterranean. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 27: Interactive touch screen map of the ancient world ports. Joshua Jones
2011.
Figure 28: Reconstruction of a Phoenician ship and its cargo. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 29: Reconstruction of a Punic ship and its cargo. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 30: Interpretive display of Phoenician port. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 31: Interpretive display of Roman port. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 32: Stone anchor interpretive display in the Phoenician exhibit. Joshua Jones
2011.
Figure 33: Phoenician exhibit showing common items found on board a Phoenician
vessel. Joshua Jones 2011.
8
Figure 34: Interactive interpretive display demonstrating magnetometer surveying
and sub bottom profiling. Joshua Jones 2011.
9
Chapter 1
Introduction and Thesis Aims
10
Introduction
With the increase in maritime archaeological projects worldwide, the
importance of public interpretation has become paramount in the education of the
public. It is imperative to educate and engage them to teach them why maritime
archaeology has become so important, and to enlighten them on the detrimental
effects of treasure hunting. Underwater archaeological sites are a non-renewable
resource, which is why it is important to conserve them and study them
(McManamon 2000: 5). Underwater sites have suffered from the effects of treasure
hunting, as well as other pressures including technological developments both in
recreational diving and how sites are found, commercial development of waterways
and coastal shores, cultural and ethical pressures, administration and management
of sites and restricted resources for research (Kenderdine 1997: 13–14).
Shipwrecks should be considered as national monuments underwater. The need to
protect these heritage sites both nationally and internationally is urgent, and can
only be accomplished through the education of the public as to why they are so
important. With the increase of treasure hunting stories in the media, it is difficult
for the public to distinguish between the scholarly methods of projects conducted
by archaeologists and the detrimental methods employed by treasure hunters.
Military sites have been given protection under international law, but the
importance that all sites have as global heritage should be demonstrated to the
public (Naval History and Heritage Command 2005).
The interpretation of archaeological sites provides the public with a link to
the archaeological material and the history learned from excavation. Museum
exhibition is one of the best ways that scientific archaeological investigations can
display finds to the public and create links from the history, to the public. This thesis
will focus on the work of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation near La
Manga, Spain as a central case study to better understand how public interpretation
undertaken by the National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology (ARQUA) located in
Cartagena, Spain creates a link to the public. Four additional case studies will be
assessed in terms of their public interpretation approaches. These case studies are
the Uluburun, the Kyrenia, La Belle and the Pepper Wreck shipwreck excavations.
11
These case studies represent a variety of approaches to public interpretation and
were selected for their importance both historical and archaeological. It is important
to better understand interpretation approaches so that the history behind the
archaeology can be most effectively shared with the public and links created
between modern cultures and past. Hopefully, in time the differentiation between
treasure hunters and archaeologists will become clear through the education of the
public.
Statement of Purpose
Figure 1. Google Earth image of Spain displaying the approximate location of the
Bajo de La Campana excavation site. Google Earth 2012.
During the 1950s and 1960s, salvage divers discovered three possible
shipwrecks within one area while exploring and working near the Bajo de la
Campana rock outcrop salvaging iron shipwrecks (Roldán 1995: 966; Polzer and
Reyes 2007:58). The Spanish Ministry of Culture collected much of the material that
12
was recovered by the salvagers. After they were collected and studied, it was
determined that the artefacts may have come from three separate ancient
shipwrecks (Roldán 1995: 966; Polzer and Reyes 2007:58). The Institute of Nautical
Archaeology (INA) began its investigation of the site in 2007 under the direction of
Mark Polzer and Juan Pinedo Reyes with the cooperation of the Spanish Ministry of
Culture (Figure 1 and 2) (Polzer and Reyes 2007: 58; Polzer 2012). It was
determined that there were in fact three separate ancient shipwrecks on site, a
Phoenician vessel from the Middle Iron Age, a Roman Vessel from the Republican
Period and another Roman vessel from the Imperial Period (Roldán 1995: 966;
Polzer and Reyes 2007:58). Initial surveys yielded archaeological material, in
particular Phoenician, which led to the full-scale excavation and investigations from
2008 to 2011 (Polzer and Reyes 2008: 5 ; Polzer and Reyes 2011: 7).
Figure 2. Close up Google Earth image of the Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Area,
and the ARQUA museum. Google Earth 2012.
13
The subsequent excavation and investigation are what has led to this study of
the material and public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana excavation. The
principal research question of this thesis is:
How does public interpretation after a scientific archaeological excavation
aid in informing the public of the significance of underwater cultural heritage
sites?
Five case studies will be used to examine the principal research question. The
Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation is utilized as the central case study to
understanding public interpretation, and will be supported using four other
excavations. With the analysis of these case studies, several important research aims
will be addressed. These aims are:
o To define what constitutes public interpretation;
o To comprehend museum display theory and show its importance;
o To understand how museum display and exhibition aid in engaging the
public;
o To identify what public interpretation approaches have been utilized in the
five case studies;
o To identify what constitutes successful public interpretation.
Case Studies
This section serves to introduce the case studies and the reasoning behind
their selection for the purpose of this thesis. They will be discussed in further detail
in Chapters 4 through 8, but it is important to state why they were selected and
what purpose they will serve in this thesis. The case studies selected for this thesis
are the Bajo de la Campana, the Uluburun, the Kyrenia, La Belle and the Pepper
Wreck shipwreck excavations. The primary reason for the selection of these
shipwreck sites as case studies is that each one has a specific museum or museums
associated with their excavation, all of which have continued to play a major role in
the public interpretation of the finds.
14
The Bajo de la Campana shipwreck was selected as the central case study
because of personal involvement with the project, and its importance as submerged
cultural heritage. The ARQUA maritime museum (Formally known as National
Museum of Maritime Archaeology (MNAM) and its associated National Centre for
Underwater Archaeological Research (CNIAS)) located in Cartagena, Spain has
played a major role in the interpretation, preservation and display of artefacts
recovered from the Bajo de la Campana excavation (Bernal et al. 1995: 11–13;
Polzer and Reyes 2008:6). This institution is significant within Spain because it was
created in the image of the Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Alicante (MARQ)
located in Alicante, Spain, which has created a new philosophy of thought in
museum display and public interpretation. Since the ARQUA museum was created in
light of a new philosophy in museum display and interpretation, it is essential to
evaluate this modern museum in terms of its importance in creating public interest
in maritime archaeology. The ARQUA museum has become an icon for how a
maritime archaeological institution should be designed.
The Uluburun shipwreck excavation was selected because it was one of the
earliest maritime archaeological excavations of a Bronze Age vessel in the
Mediterranean, and is also considered one of the oldest wrecked seagoing ships to
be discovered (Pulak 2008: 289). The techniques and approaches used by the
Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology (BMUA) were some of the first
attempts at maritime public interpretation and are still significant today. The BMUA
is still considered one of the world’s great maritime archaeological museums, and
provides a solid background for beginnings of public interpretation within a
maritime archaeological museum. The Uluburun shipwreck is also significant
because of the breadth of material recovered and how it changed the history books
about everything we know of the Bronze Age (Pulak 2008: 289). It is also
considered to be one of the top ten archaeological discoveries of the twentieth
century (Fagan 1999).
The Kyrenia shipwreck excavation was chosen because of public interpretation
that has caused this shipwreck to be a national icon of Cyprus. It is nearly impossible
to travel through Cyprus without confronting an image of the Kyrenia shipwreck.
15
This in itself proves the success of the public interpretation of the vessel which was
the reason it was selected as a case study. The Kyrenia shipwreck and artefacts are
housed in the Kyrenia Shipwreck Exhibit (KSE) in the Girne Caste, which to this day
plays a major role in the public interpretation of the shipwreck remains (Cariolou
2012). The KSE has also had a hand in creating a number of sailing reconstructions,
which has aided in stimulating public interest in the project and continued research
of an ancient sailing vessel (Cariolou 2012).
La Belle excavation was selected as an additional case study because of its
unique public interpretation tactics and modern technology employed by
researchers to teach the public about the wreck and its history (Hamilton 2006: 2–
3). This well documented shipwreck was excavated in a unique way, using a
cofferdam to create a dry excavation platform (Hamilton 2006: 2–3). This allowed
for researchers to employ unique methods of public interpretation that will be
discussed in Chapters six. La Belle artefacts and hull remains are being displayed
and cared for under the direction of Texas A&M University, which has created a
variety of digital public interpretation tools that make this project significant and
necessary to study (Hamilton 2006: 2–3).
The final case study being analysed in this thesis is the Pepper Wreck excavation
near Lisbon, Portugal. The principle reason this project was selected was for its
digital reconstructions of the hull (Steffy 2007). While the hull was excavated and
studied, it was never raised from the seabed. This is important because of public
interpretation tactics used to teach the public about the wreck without actually
having hull remains to see as physical objects. While there is a dedicated museum
exhibit in the Museu de Marinha in Lisbon, Portugal, the most important aspect is the
three-dimensional digital modelling that has been produced to garner public
interest without actually visiting the museum in person.
Defining Public Interpretation
In order to proceed with this thesis, a general understanding of what public
interpretation entails is absolutely necessary. Public interpretation has a variety of
definitions and can be understood in a variety of ways. One great definition of public
16
interpretation comes from Della Scott-Ireton and John H. Jameson in Out of the Blue
(2004):
We believe that one of the primary purposes of public interpretation in
maritime heritage management is to foster the understanding that cultural
resources are fixed points or inalienable objects in the public conscious. The
placement of inalienable objects in museums —behind glass, spotlighted, or
otherwise specially treated —signifies inherent value through the mode of
display. Sites such as shipwrecks provide special challenges in that they are
rarely entirely raised, conserved, and placed in an exhibit. The vast majority
of shipwrecks and other submerged maritime sites that are interpreted at all
are in situ at their resting place on the ocean floor. Thus, in order to be
effective, archaeologists, resource managers, and interpreters must employ
innovative and provocative interpretive strategies that go beyond traditional
exhibition techniques in illustrating and emphasizing the heritage values
associated with shipwrecks and other sites within the maritime landscape
[Scott-Ireton and Jameson 2004: 2].
This quotation helps to explain what public interpretation involves and what
role it plays within maritime archaeology; however, it does not completely define
what interpretation is. The role of interpretation is to create interest in a cultural or
historical resource by imparting accurate information about the resource in an
entertaining way (Scott-Ireton 2004: 23). Good interpretation does not just give
facts but integrates the resource into a larger historical picture and describes what
impact the resource had on local cultural identity (Scott-Ireton 2004: 23).
Since public interpretation is somewhat of a catchall phrase, it is important
to explicate just when it is relevant and what it entails. In order to get a full grasp of
when interpretation and outreach tactics come into play, one must first understand
the process of an archaeological excavation. Once the excavation has commenced,
public outreach is used to teach locals about the importance of the excavation to
provide site protection and garner interest from the local inhabitants or populace to
17
keep the site free of external influences. These activities come under the guidance of
the program director and are usually funded by the project itself. It is important for
project funding to consider additional requirements and opportunities for public
outreach while the project is being conducted, to educate the public and protect the
site from looters (Souter 2006: 164). Once the material has been excavated and the
work on site concluded, the material goes into the next stage, which is conservation.
At this point public outreach is no longer occurring to promote the site and its
protection in general, unless material still remains on site in situ. In some cases
where in situ monitoring is the case, public outreach is still occurring for the main
purpose of site protection. As the artefacts are being processed and preserved the
public interpretation begins. This is when an institution begins the planning and
interpretation of the archaeological material. This thesis focuses on this stage. It is
important to differentiate between the public outreach occurring during the
excavation and the public interpretation after.
For the purpose of this thesis public interpretation will be defined as: The
use of media, exhibitions, museums, pamphlets and other informational tools that
occur after an excavation to instil interest and provide education about a cultural or
historical resource that has been given value by the inherent nature of the resource
and its importance historically and culturally.
Post-Processual Archaeology, Museum Display Theory and Naturalistic
Paradigm
Post-processual archaeology is a theoretical approach to archaeological
interpretation that utilizes freedom of value from the researcher (Shanks and
Hodder 1998: 69–70). Michael Shanks and Ian Hodder (1998: 70) suggest that the
renaming of post-processualism to interpretive archaeology might give
archaeologists a better suiting and more definitive name of what the end goal of
post-processual archaeology implies. Post-processual archaeology in this thesis is
defined as the interpretation of archaeological approaches without being hindered
by predisposed values, but rather allowing value to generate naturally as the
researcher discovers what is inherently valuable. To interpret something is to
18
discover what it means. In the case of this thesis, interpretation of museum exhibits
is to discover or explain what the meaning behind the exhibitions is and what it
conveys to the public. This is where museum evaluation and museum display theory
come into play.
There has been a great advancement in the way that museum exhibitions are
evaluated in recent times (Dean 1996: 91). Museums have been classified as a
leisure activity and now compete with establishments like malls, cinemas, sporting
events etc. (Dean 1996: 91). To evaluate is to rate or measure something, and to
evaluate exhibitions is to examine their effectiveness and learn from their successes
and failures (Dean 1996: 91). It has become increasingly clear that improving the
appeal of exhibitions and museum experiences without sacrificing intellectual
integrity is needed to better the public interpretation from such institutions (Dean
1996: 92). The question then becomes how do we evaluate these institutions’? One
of the first methods was simply to count the number of visitors to judge the
institution’s success at garnering public interest; however, mere numbers say little
about a museum’s display and what it conveys to the public (Dean 1996: 92). It is
therefore necessary to examine a number of other variables that may better
describe how well an institution is conveying its message. Some evaluation
questions that might better answer how well the museum is portraying public
interpretation are:
o Does the exhibit attract and hold visitor attention, and if so for how
long is the audience engaged?
o Are visitors learning?
o Does the exhibit meet the needs of the public and does the exhibit
address and answer the public’s questions?
o Do visitors feel the museum experience is personally rewarding?
o Does the exhibit promote continued interest in the subject being
displayed?
o Will a visitor return to the museum and why or why not? (Dean 1996:
93)
19
These are merely examples of some of the questions a researcher might ask
when evaluating an exhibition or museum. The next question is how to actually go
about evaluating an exhibition or institution. This thesis will utilize a form of
evaluation known as the naturalist paradigm or naturalistic evaluation. The
naturalistic paradigm is usually approached by means of ethnographic techniques,
meaning that it uses descriptions of people and places to draw conclusions (Berry et
al. 1989: 238). In most circumstances the results of a naturalistic approach produce
field notes, interviews and unstructured observations (Berry et al. 1989: 238).
Evaluators using a naturalistic paradigm almost always conduct their studies in the
natural setting or in the field (Berry et al. 1989: 238). Generally the design of the
studies are not planned prior to entering the field, and generally evolve from the
information and observations gathered in the field (Berry et al. 1989: 239).
Conclusions from naturalistic research are generally presented in a case study, in
which the researcher interacts with the participants and the environment to
interpret the beliefs, values, and behaviours in order to construct reality from the
researcher’s point of view(Frey 1994:562). While the evaluators are aware that
theories and ideas exist prior, they would rather see what evolves from the study
and what is generated naturally in the field (Berry et al. 1989: 238).
This thesis uses this method in order to evaluate and interpret the ARQUA
museum. Museum display theory is used in this work to interpret and analyse the
four other case studies by determining the effectiveness of their public outreach. A
more in depth review of museum display theory, Post-processual archaeology and
the naturalistic paradigm will be discussed in chapter two, as well as what criteria
are used to evaluate museum exhibits and institutions.
Introduction to Phoenician History
During the first millennium the Phoenicians suffered a variety of
misfortunes causing them to change directions in their trading habits and to focus
the majority of their trade efforts to the west (Aubet 2001: 26). As they were forced
westward for trade, the Phoenicians began to set up trading posts throughout the
Mediterranean west of their home in Tyre, or what is now modern day Turkey
(Figure 3) (Aubet 2001:26). The Phoenicians left behind relatively few written
20
records of their history from this time period; however, what we do know about this
time period can be attributed to Assyrian annals, Biblical texts and references
passed down by a few classical authors (Altamira 1930:14; Aubet 2001: 27; Sherratt
2010: 124–125). While the Phoenician history is vast, this thesis will focus in
particular on the Phoenicians’ role within Spain.
Figure 3. Map of Phoenician trade routes and major ports. University of Texas
2007.
The primary reason that the Phoenicians expanded their trade as far west as
Spain, Northern Africa and the Atlantic, was the demand from Assyrians for raw
materials (Albright 1941: 14–15; Aubet 2001: 70–71, Pappa 2008: 57). Trading
posts were set up along the coastline of southern and eastern Spain usually in places
where safe harbor was easily accessed (Moity et al. 2003: 10). The earliest trading
post set up in Spain was in Gadir or modern day Cadiz, which was established in
21
1110 B.C.; however, there is still speculation as to the exact date (Moity et al. 2003:
9).
The Phoenicians excelled in textiles and working with metals, wood, glass
and stone (Moity et al. 2003:9). The primary reason for the Phoenicians’ trade in
Spain was metals, in particular iron ore, which was used in the process of smelting
(Aubet 2001: 315). This is particularly significant due to the large amounts of metals
that were excavated from the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site (Polzer and Reyes
2008: 9; Polzer and Reyes 2009: 4; Polzer and Reyes 2011: 9; Polzer 2012).
Approach and Methods
This thesis uses museum display theory in order to evaluate the public
interpretation approaches used by the five case studies. It also uses the theoretical
approach of Post-processual archaeology. Evaluation and analysis will be conducted
using a naturalistic paradigm in combination with museum display theory to
understand and evaluate the public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana case
study. The naturalistic paradigm was used in the field to evaluate the effectiveness
of the ARQUA museum exhibit and how well the public interpretation was exhibited
to the public visiting the museum. Museum display theory is the base of comparison
for the naturalistic paradigm used in this study. While museum display theory helps
to explain how best to interpret material to the public, the analysis of the Bajo de la
Campana exhibit was evaluated using naturalistic paradigm theory.
The first goal of this thesis is to understand the ideas behind museum display
theory and comprehend the concepts of what is ideal for museum interpretation. A
literature review of museum display theory is conducted and helps to explain the
theory behind interpretation within an institution. The next step is to analyse the
four case studies’ tactics and methods of public interpretation, both within the
projects and the museums. These case studies will be evaluated through excavation
reports, material studies and related publications, such as exhibition catalogues and
websites, recreations of sites, reconstructions of excavated materials, etc., to try to
determine what made these projects successful. This will be followed by an analysis
22
of the Bajo de la Campana exhibit located in the ARQUA museum located in
Cartagena, Spain using a naturalistic paradigm.
Finally thorough analyses of public interpretation techniques are discussed
and interpreted using a combination of museum display theory and naturalistic
paradigm theory.
Significance
Scientific archaeological investigations and museums are meaningless
without public interest; therefore, the primary goals of any such work should be
increased knowledge and to connect the public to the history and archaeology, i.e.
site and material. This thesis will provide a better understanding of what public
interpretation methods have shown to be successful, and will build upon
archaeologists’ knowledge of how to approach the public so as to garner support
through increased public awareness and appreciation of historical sites and their
significance.
The Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site is of particular significance because it
provides a case study of how the public can be effectively approached using public
interpretation tools to link the community to the site and its historical significance.
The public interpretation also allows the society to have a direct link to the site and
take part in the discoveries as they are established.
This thesis also provides a foundation within the archaeological community
to improve public interpretation methods and better understand what techniques
have shown to be successful. While inevitably the methods selected for public
interpretation are dependent on the circumstances of the project, this work can
provide insight into possible techniques. This paper also provides a written record
of methods for garnering public interest that can be referred to for insight on public
outreach.
Limitations
The main limitation to this study is the question of how to quantify what
techniques are to be deemed as successful and how a museum or display is to be
23
rated as effective. Judging the effectiveness is a difficult task because it is nearly
impossible to quantify success. While visitor attendance can be quantified, it gives a
limited perception of success. One way to determine success is to perform surveys
and interviews, which were not performed for this study. In order to manage this
limitation, a naturalistic paradigm was utilized to try and quantify success by visitor
satisfaction observed in the study.
Another limitation is how to gauge the impact of a particular archaeological
site on the public. The public in this case refers to the local inhabitants near where
the wreck was found, residents of surrounding regions, the national audience and
the international audience. Each group of publics will have differing opinions on the
site’s significance, their experience with material, their relationship to the site and
the knowledge learned from experiencing the public interpretation provided. It is
difficult to judge merely from observation what they took away from the public
interpretation. An attempt at managing this limitation was to try and observe as
diverse a public on site as possible.
Chapter Outline
This thesis uses a ten-chapter analysis of public interpretation techniques
with a focus on the work of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation. The first
chapter is an introduction to the history of the site, the Phoenicians, museum
display theory and the case studies selected for the analysis of public interpretation.
The thesis continues by conducting an in depth literature review of museum display
theory.
The paper then moves to the approaches and criteria for analysis of the case
studies selected and discusses the importance of post-processual archaeology and
naturalistic paradigms and their relationship to this thesis. Data is presented in the
ensuing chapters and what methods of public interpretation have been utilized in
the five case studies selected for this work. Finally, an analysis of the techniques
used and conclusions of the importance of public interpretation are reviewed
concluding this thesis.
24
Chapter 2
Post-Processual Archaeological Theory, Museum Display Theory and
Naturalistic Paradigm
25
Introduction
Following is a review and defence of the archaeological and museological
approach used in this thesis. The theories used in this thesis will be described and
reviewed. A review of the post-processual theoretical approach will be reviewed
first. This review will then proceed to discuss museum display theory and will
conclude with an overview of naturalistic paradigm theory. This chapter will
conclude with a discussion of how each archaeological theory applies to this thesis.
Post-processual Archaeology
Post-processual archaeology is a movement in archaeological theory that
developed, as the name suggests, after the processual movement, although beyond
that the name bears little relevance to its subject (Shanks and Hodder 1998:69).
Processual archaeology was one of the earliest forms of the discipline that used
science as its foundation for discovery and hypothesis testing (Shanks and Hodder
1998: 69). Since the 1970s, however, there have been disagreements with the
processual approach to material culture(Shanks and Hodder 1998: 69). The result of
these controversies was the birth of the post-processual movement, which
fundamentally stipulates that value of a study is in the eye of the beholder (Shanks
and Hodder 1998: 69–70). However, this emphasis on subjectivity in observation
and interpretation has led some to argue that post-processualism is anti–science
and celebrates subjectivity (Shanks and Hodder 1998: 69–70). Christine VanPool
(1999: 34) and others, however, believe that both theories rely on the scientific
method and that such disagreements generally are based on misconceptions.
Michael Shanks (2008:134) suggests that the advent of the processual postprocessual debate has led to the search for a more thoughtful and inclusive
archaeology with the best properties of the old and the new. Shanks (2008: 134)
also contends that professionals labelled as post-processualists are generally only
found within academic institutions and remain absent from most fieldwork and
museum positions. Post-processualists extol the freedom that their approach allows
in exploring all possible meanings and outcomes, while opponents deride the same
for being unwilling to label something while the outcome is still uncertain (Shanks
26
2008: 134). Joe Flatman (2003:144) suggests that while others may fear that a postprocessual approach in maritime archaeology will increase debate and controversy
and ultimately leave questions unanswered, it is possible to apply postprocessualism without the field disintegrating into one without absolute truth. He
argues that not only is Post-processual maritime archaeology not deficient of
answers, it applies scientific methodology and evaluation of evidence (Flatman
2003:144). While most argue that Post-processual archaeology differs greatly from
processual archaeology, Shanks (2008:134–135) points out the fundamental
characteristics they have in common. First and foremost both critically evaluate the
status quo, secondly both theories depend on the value of critical debate. Both
theories are fundamentally based in research methods; however, processual
archaeology is primarily concerned with the methodology rather than its meaning.
These two approaches also agree that social archaeology has something significant
to say about past societies and cultures rather than just documenting what is found
from excavation. Finally they both have an anthropological or sociological outlook.
Thomas Patterson (1989:555) also agrees that while these two theories are
distinctly different, they share many overlapping ideologies. While postprocessualism is generally considered one theory, Patterson (1989:556) argues that
there are in fact many different types of post-processualism, even though the
fundamental aims and ideas are essentially the same.
Museum Display Theory
There have been great advances in the way that museum exhibitions are
evaluated in recent times (Dean 1996: 91). Museums have been classified as a
leisure activity and now compete with establishments like malls, cinemas, sporting
events etc. (Dean 1996: 91). The public in the twentieth century has striven to
devote some of their time to leisure activities that are designed as mental diversions
rather than physical relaxation (Falk 2009: 41). In the twenty-first century,
however, larger numbers of the population are devoting time to expanding their
understanding of themselves and the world around them (Falk 2009: 41). To
evaluate is to rate or measure something, and to evaluate exhibitions is to juxtapose
27
their effectiveness and learn from their successes and failures (Dean 1996: 91). It
has become increasingly clearer that improving the appeal of exhibitions and
museum experiences without sacrificing intellectual integrity is needed to better the
public education from such institutions (Dean 1996: 92). To the contrary John Falk
(2009: 58–59) suggests that it’s not the amount that people learn within a museum
that is important so much as that they walk away having learned something of value.
Falk (2009: 181) also suggests that most museums still operate on a business model
that more is better and that the museum experience is a “one size fits all” approach.
The question then becomes how do we evaluate these institutions? One of
the first methods was simply to count the number of visitors to judge the
institutions success at garnering public interest. However, mere numbers say little
about the museum’s display and what it conveys to the public (Dean 1996: 92). With
the increasing change in how the public views leisure activities especially museums,
the “typical visitor” and “one size fits all” model is no longer a valid way to assess a
museums success (Falk 2009: 182). It has become important to consider multiple
variables in how a museum display is assessed. Some of the questions that should be
considered when evaluating a museum and its display techniques are:
o Why do people visit the museum and what is required for them to get
there?
o Does the exhibit attract and hold visitor attention, and if so for how
long is the audience engaged?
o Are visitors learning anything?
o Does the exhibit meet the needs of the public and does the exhibit
address and answer the publics’ questions?
o Do visitors feel the museum experience is personally rewarding?
o Does the exhibit promote continued interest in the subject being
displayed?
o How are new audiences being attracted to the museum?
o What is something that the museum is not providing the public that is
desired?
28
o Will a visitor return to the museum and why or why not? (Dean 1996:
93; Falk 2009: 184)
These are only some examples of questions a researcher might ask when evaluating
an institution. In the twenty first century marketing has become one of the most
important aspects of the museum institutions and has created the need for full time
marketing professionals (Falk 2009: 185). Without the audience, museums would
be for nought, so it is therefore vital for these institutions to consider how best to
attract their audience. Therefore, the evaluation of current institutions should be
based on how to best attract an audience, and to consider what that audience will
get out of the museum experience.
Naturalistic Paradigm
“Paradigm” is a word that has come to describe research traditions, which
are characterized within the social sciences (Grant and Giddings 2002: 11). A
paradigm is a theoretical and methodological belief that permits selection,
evaluation and criticism (Grant and Giddings 2002:11). The advent of the
“naturalistic paradigm” occurred during the 1960s, when educators and museum
curators had become dissatisfied with the scientific, or traditional, positivist
paradigm (Berry et al. 1989: 224). This approach originated in the social sciences, as
teachers were becoming less satisfied with the evaluation of testing and student
achievement without considering their student’s environments or pre-existing
conditions (Berry et al. 1989: 224). The foundation for this is that perceptions of, or
evaluations of human behaviour can be influenced based on the environment in
which the observation occurs, and that the perspective can bring different
interpretation to any setting (Berry et al. 1989: 224). This paradigm became
increasingly accepted by museum curators and evaluators, as it allowed for the
incorporation of many beliefs, views, interpretations and emotions to be recorded
and compiled, creating a better understanding of the overall picture (Berry et al.
1989: 224; Grant and Giddings 2002:17).
The naturalistic paradigm approach uses ethnographic techniques, basing
conclusions upon descriptions of people and places (Berry et al. 1989: 224, Grant
29
and Giddings 2002:17). In most circumstances, the results of a naturalistic approach
produce field notes, interviews and unstructured observations (Berry et al. 1989:
224). Observers record everything they see and hear, while interviewers record
responses verbatim (Berry et al. 1989: 224; Grant and Giddings 2002:17).
Evaluators using a naturalistic paradigm almost always conduct their studies in the
in the field (Berry et al. 1989: 224). The designs of the studies typically are not
planned prior to entering the field, and evolve from the information and
observations gathered (Berry et al. 1989: 225). Studies of naturalistic research are
presented as case studies, in which the researchers interacts with participants and
the environment to interpret what is important, in order to draw conclusions from
the researchers’ point of view (Frey 1994:562). While evaluators are aware of preexisting theories and ideas, they prefer to see what evolves from their study and
what is generated naturally (Berry et al. 1989: 225).
Theory Application to this Thesis
The theories described in this chapter are utilized in the analysis of museum
display and interpretation methods of the five case studies. A post-processual
approach is described in order to help demonstrate its use within a methodological
approach to the analysis of public interpretation. Museum display theory is used in
this thesis to help evaluate the museum and website display of the ARQUA museum
in Cartagena, Spain. Observations were made within the ARQUA institution using a
naturalistic paradigm.
30
Chapter 3
Methodology
31
Introduction
The method and limitations of assessing public interpretation efforts
employed by museums and educational institutions are discussed, as well as how
particular elements of such efforts can be applied to the Bajo de la Campana
shipwreck assemblage.
Case Study Analysis
Once case studies were selected for this thesis, it was important to analyse
and assess the success of the methods of public interpretation used in each. The first
step was to understand the history of each case study and to study what was found.
With an understanding of the history and finds, it would be easier to identify the
significance of the project and the methods used for public interpretation. Since
public interpretation is what occurs after the excavation has taken place, it was
important to first understand what occurred during the excavation.
A review of what was done after the excavation was performed for each case
study, with an emphasis on the public interpretation approaches performed by each.
Since each project utilized differing techniques, this was an important aspect of the
research. The interpretation techniques were assessed in terms of their usefulness
for the Bajo de la Campana excavation. The significance of each is described in the
ensuing chapters and discussed. The success of each project’s interpretation was
determined by the nature of interpretation tactics and their overall impact on the
local and international publics.
Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck Analysis
As the central case study, it was important to analyse the importance of the
excavation and research to the local and international community. As a participant
in the 2011 field season of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation, the author
had a first-hand perspective of how the artefacts were treated from their
unearthing, to their raising, recording and transportation to conservation. This
process was vital to understand in terms of what happens during and after they are
uncovered from the sea floor. While half of the museum is dedicated to
32
archaeological finds, the other half of the museum is dedicated to the archaeological
process in an ancient shipwreck excavation. Due to the fact that this museum will be
the primary source of public access and interpretation of the materials, it was
necessary to observe and analyse the museum’s approach to artefact display and
site interpretation.
During the excavation, frequent trips were made to Cartagena, Spain to visit
and explore the Museo Nacional Subacuática Arqueológica (National Museum of
Underwater Archaeology, or ARQUA) of Spain, located in Cartagena in the
Autonomous Region of Murcia. The ARQUA museum plays an important ongoing
role in the project by continually both assessing and conserving artefacts. All of the
previous finds from the excavations of Bajo de la Campana are housed and
conserved in the local museum. ARQUA also is the primary source for public
interpretation within this region of Spain. A critical analysis of the ARQUA museum
where the artefacts would eventually be displayed as part of an interpretive exhibit
was also important to an understanding of how the artefacts would fit into the
overall message that the ARQUA museum was trying to convey to the public.
Analysis of the ARQUA museum was performed using non-intrusive observations in
the form of a naturalistic paradigm. Observations of the museum exhibits and
communication with museum staff and project directors aided in the overall
understanding of the museum’s approach to public interpretation. The museum
was observed in a stepwise progression from the entrance to the exit and analysed
in terms of its usefulness to the overall desired message of the ARQUA museum. This
included recording museum design, exhibits, interactive displays, colours, artefacts
and language. Non-intrusive observations of visitors to the museum aided in the
author’s understanding of which exhibits kept visitor attention the longest, and
which exhibits were the most popular. Visitors were observed from the time they
entered the museum exhibits until the time they exited. Each visitor was timed for
the amount of time they spent in each exhibit. Observations were only taken at the
ARQUA museum without any prior knowledge of the visitors’ background.
An examination of the website and digital media available from the ARQUA
museum was also performed, in order to understand what other interpretation was
33
available for the public. This involved reviewing the website design, language, user
friendliness and techniques employed to garner public interest and teach the public
about the archaeological work performed at the institution. Both the website design
and museum design were important to observe and discuss due to the new
techniques being employed for museum display and the new trends employed
within this Spanish institution. While both the website design and museum design
were evaluated using variables, these variables differed greatly.
34
Chapter 4
The Uluburun Shipwreck
35
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the case study of the Uluburun
shipwreck excavation. This section covers the history of the excavation, a summary
of what was found, what aspects of the project were particularly significant, what
was done with the material found and what lessons we can take away from this case
study.
History of the Uluburun Excavation
The Uluburun (or Grand Cape) shipwreck dates to the Late Bronze Age and
was found off a promontory with this name in Turkey (Pulak 2008:289). The
shipwreck site lies in c. 60 meters of water and is situated about 9 kilometres
southeast of the town of Kaş (Pulak 2008: 289). A local sponge diver discovered the
shipwreck and reported it to the authorities, after which archaeologists first visited
the site in 1982 (Pulak 2008: 289). Immediately visible were dozens of ingots, still
arranged in discernable rows and having a particular shape termed “oxhide” which
allowed archaeologists to tentatively date it to around 1300 B.C. (Pulak 2008: 289).
The Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) and the Bodrum Museum of Underwater
Archaeology (BMUA) began excavations of the site in 1984 (Bass 1986:269–270).
The site was situated in deep-enough waters to protected it from looters and
pillagers, which meant much of its original cargo remained in-situ (Bass 1986:269–
271). Excavations continued until 1994 in a joint operation by INA and the BMUA
under the direction of George Bass and Cemal Pulak (Manning, et al. 2009:163;
Pulak 1997:235). In more than 22,400 dives spanning 11 summer campaigns, the
Uluburn shipwreck site was completely excavated revealing a unique cargo from the
Late Bronze Age (Bass 1996: 60; Pulak 1998: 188).
Archaeological Finds
The large number of artefacts from the Uluburun shipwreck site consisted
mostly of raw materials (Bass 1996: 63). Many of the items found were known to be
common in trade; however, many of the artefacts have no been found on other
shipwreck sites or in land excavations and were only known from ancient cuneiform
36
texts and Egyptian tomb paintings (Bass 1996: 63). The major cargo of the ancient
vessel was ten tons of copper ingots, and nearly a ton of tin ingots (Bass 1996: 67).
With these ingots, there was enough copper and tin to make eleven tons of bronze
(Bass 1996:67). There were also one hundred and fifty glass ingots, which varied in
colour from cobalt blue, turquoise and lavender (Bass 1996:67). Logs of Egyptian
ebony (now known as blackwood) and cedar were also raised from the site.
Archaeologists also excavated one ton of terebinth resin carried as a cargo in
Canaanite amphorae—it was the first time this substance had been found in an
archaeological excavation (Bass 1996: 70). Additional raw materials excavated
included ivory, both hippopotamus teeth and elephant tusks, murex opercula,
tortoise carapaces, and ostrich eggshells (Bass 1996: 70).
In addition to the raw goods discovered on site, there was a plethora of
manufactured goods including amphorae, pottery, jewellery, a gold goblet, assorted
beads, carved ivory, copper cauldron and bowls, bronze weapons and tools, stone
anchors as well as the largest collection of Bronze Age zoomorphic weights for trade
(Bass 1996: 72–77).
37
Public Interpretation Tactics
Figure 4. Uluburun exhibit in the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology.
Archaeological Institute of America 2012.
The BMUA museum plays a much larger role in the grand scheme of things
then just a house for the artefacts of an ancient shipwreck (Marciniec 2009). When
the museum was created, it was created with the intentions of creating a cultural
centre for Turkey where education, history and public interpretation could have a
tangible connection with the public (Marciniec 2009). A life size diorama of the
shipwreck was constructed to be housed in the museum as well as a site
reconstruction (Figure 4), which shows what the excavation would have looked like
underwater (Marciniec 2009). Creating a diorama in a museum provides a firsthand impression of what divers might have seen underwater while excavating the
site. It also gives information to the public about the history of the vessel, the history
of the time period and links the modern site to the ancient world. The BMUA acted
as a catalyst for Turkey, creating a desire and interest in maritime heritage
38
(Marciniec 2009). The Bodrum museum proved to be an invaluable resource in the
quest for public interpretation throughout Turkey.
Figure 5. A reconstruction of the Uluburun ship sunk for dive tourism
and public interpretation. Vasquez 2009, Photo courtesy of Coskun
Tezic.
39
Even though a diorama was already housed in the BMUA, an independent
group of maritime and dive enthusiasts called 360 Degree History Research
Association created a reconstruction of the wrecked ship underwater for dive
tourism to promote conservation and protection of underwater cultural
heritage(Figure 5) (Oldale 2008). The site’s reconstruction provides an excellent
way for divers to see what an underwater maritime site might look like (Oldale
2008). The dive site also provided archaeologists with additional research as to
what happens after a ship has sunk (Varinlioglu 2006). While this reconstruction is
unique, it only benefits the diving community. Since the majority of the public does
not dive, the museum provides an alternative way to see what a site might look like
(Marciniec 2009). The BMUA also has an interactive website that allows users to
take a 360° tour of the reconstructed shipwreck site in the museum and provides
some information about what is in the exhibit (Marciniec 2009).
A life size working reconstruction of the Uluburun ship was also constructed
starting in 2004 and set sail in 2005 (Turkish Daily News 2006). The reconstruction
was displayed in Bodrum in correlation with a local celebration, which provided the
perfect scene to promote maritime heritage, public involvement and teach visitors
about the history and importance of the Uluburun ship (Turkish Daily News 2006).
Reconstructions or visualisations of ships are an excellent way to garner public
interest by providing a life size and tangible version of the vessel. While replicas are
important for public outreach, it is important to consider the limitations of replicas
in terms of their usefulness from an archaeological perspective. There is no doubt
that they are aesthetically important and pleasing for garnering public interest, but
additional functions of the replica for experimental archaeology are necessary to
consider when determining cost effectiveness.
Many of the artefacts excavated and conserved were donated for a period of
time to a travelling exhibitions in Germany and the United States (Figure 6)
(Bergbau Museum Bochum 2005; Turkish Daily News 2008). The exhibition first
went to Germany from 15 October, 2005 until 16 July, 2006 and was housed in
Deutschen Bergbau- Museums Bochum (Bergbau Museum Bochum 2005). The
travelling exhibition next went to the Metropolitan Museum of Art on November 18,
40
2008 and remained until March 15, 2009 ( Aruz, et al. 2008; Turkish Daily News
2008). The exhibit was titled Beyond Babylon and contained nearly four hundred
artefacts from various museums in the Levant and Near East (Turkish Daily News
2008). Ninety eight artefacts from the Uluburun shipwreck exhibit were lent to the
collection and provided an opportunity for visitors to the Metropolitan Museum of
Art (MET) to learn about the Bronze Age and how the Uluburun shipwreck was
importance to maritime archaeology as one of the oldest wrecked ships ever
excavated (Turkish Daily News 2008).
Figure 6. Museum exhibit cover photo showing artefacts, the MET and a diver
working on the Uluburun site. Institute of Nautical Archaeology 2008.
Travelling exhibits provide an excellent way to reach out to the public on an
international level. It is important though for the creators of a travelling exhibit to
consider the material and its overall importance to the international community and
its historical importance. When international travelling exhibits are created, it’s
extremely important to consider the audience and what positive and negative
41
impressions can be taken from the exhibition. It is vital for any exhibition or
permanent exhibit to make sure they follow a strict archaeological ethics code. A
colourful and elaborate book was also published regarding the exhibit and describes
the importance of the artefacts on display and their history and importance (Aruz, et
al. 2008). Within the book created for the exhibit, there is a chapter dedicated to the
Uluburun wreck which provides both pictures and descriptions of the excavation
and artefacts found (Pulak 2008:288–324). This collection highlights Phoenician
and Levant culture during the Bronze Age and highlights the importance of
archaeological excavations for our understanding of history and culture from that
period.
Another approach that has been utilized to teach about the Uluburun
shipwreck is an online activity created by The Ellis School in Pittsburgh, PA (The
Ellis School 2002). The website provides students with the opportunity to learn
about maritime archaeology and what is involved in a scientific underwater
investigation. It also provides information about the wreck its significance
historically (The Ellis School 2002). The simple interactive website is a great way
for archaeologists to teach the masses about a site and its significance for the field or
maritime archaeology.
Significance
The archaeological finds and the meticulous excavation of this shipwreck site
are undoubtedly what made this project so special. The artefacts uncovered are
what changed the history books about what we know of Bronze Age trade. Many of
the artefacts uncovered are unique and until the shipwreck’s excavation were only
known from Egyptian tomb paintings and cuneiform texts (Bass 1996: 63). The
Uluburun shipwreck has been described as one of the top ten finds of the twentieth
century and is still providing information to this day (Fagan 2001). The combination
of the archaeological finds and the museum display tactics give the public a firsthand account of what an archaeological site would look like underwater and
provides public interpretation to increase the understanding of what archaeology
involves, as opposed to treasure hunting. The diorama and ship reconstructions aid
42
in the public interpretation and site protection of historically significant sites, and
also help to deter site looters and treasure hunters. These methods are crucial for
bridging the gap in the public’s perception of treasure hunting and archaeology by
differentiating between the meticulous work of archaeologists and destructive
techniques used by treasure hunters.
What Can We Take Away From the Uluburun Shipwreck Excavation?
The Uluburun shipwreck excavation provides this thesis with public
interpretation tactics primarily used for public awareness in the differentiation
between treasure hunting and archaeological work. The public interpretation tactics
take the form of site reconstructions that help to show the visitors what a site might
look like and what to do if one is found. Another method employed for public
interpretation of this historically significant site is the international press and
travelling exhibits that helped highlight the discoveries and their importance to our
understanding of Bronze Age trade. The Beyond Babylon exhibit that travelled to
New York and was housed in the MET gave an international audience a look into one
archaeological investigation of a shipwreck, and relayed the importance of site
protection and maritime archaeology. This exhibit highlighted not only the finds but
also what archaeological work is required when excavating underwater. The
importance of a public understanding of archaeological excavation in contrast to
treasure hunting is necessary for any scientific work conducted underwater. In
order to change the image of maritime archaeology and show how it is different
from treasure hunting, it is necessary to instil interest in archaeology and prove to
the publics that there is in fact a huge difference between the two. If this can
successfully be done, it will be possible in the future for people to hold
archaeological investigations in high regard and demote treasure hunting to nothing
more than a destructive and insignificant method of investigation whose primary
motive is monetary gain. An easy way that this lesson could be taught is through
interactive websites like that of The Ellis School (2004).
43
Chapter 5
La Belle
44
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a case study of the La Belle
excavation. This section covers the history of the excavation, a summary of what
was found, what aspects of the project were particularly significant, what was done
with the material found and what lessons we can take away from this case study.
History of the La Belle Excavation
Using old world maps, a team of maritime archaeologists narrowed a search
area down to where they thought La Belle might be located. Funding was approved
in 1978 for a magnetometer survey; however, they did not discover La Belle’s
shipwreck site. With limited funding it was not until 1995 that another
archaeological survey eventuated with the aid of private funding (Arnold 1996:66–
67). This time however, they were successful in locating anomalies with more
modern surveying equipment (Arnold 1996:67). The researchers prioritized their
survey anomalies with the most likely to be La Belle. However, since magnetometer
surveys are not always clear, they needed diver teams for direct diver analysis. This
proved difficult since the waters of the Matagorda Bay are often filled with silt and
sediment causing blackout conditions for diving (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 38). The
depth was shallow, four meters, but proved to be challenging because they had to
feel for clues rather than visually locate them.
The first significant find was a cannon. However, it could not be taken to the
surface due to the limitations of the survey vessel (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 40).
They returned to the site to raise the cannon using a barge, and to determine
whether or not they had actually found La Belle (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 40-44).
As the cannon was lowered onto the deck of the barge, archaeologists crowded
around the cannon to look for evidence of the origin of the cannon (Bruseth and
Turner 2005: 40-44). Inscriptions found on the cannon revealed that it was French
and belonged to La Belle (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 40-44). With the discovery of
La Belle came the threat of treasure hunters who could destroy archaeological
evidence. Even though La Belle was protected under state antiquities laws,
45
protecting the remote site proved to be a difficult task (Bruseth and Turner 2005:
131).
Another problem was finding a way to excavate in blackout conditions. Even
the most experienced divers and archaeologists could not possibly save all the
artefacts or prevent damage to delicate artefacts (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 47-63).
The novel technique of building a cofferdam around La Belle could potentially solve
many of the problems related to traditional underwater excavations (Figure 7).
While this was not the first time this technique was used, the dam was the largest of
its kind and proved to be a valuable tool for excavation in shallow waters (Bruseth
and Turner 2005: 47-63). One year after the discovery of La Belle, construction of
the cofferdam began (Bruseth and Turner 2005:47-63).
The next seemingly impossible task was designing a way for the hull to be
removed and taken to the Texas A&M University for study and conservation.
Although seemingly impossible, a plan was devised to deconstruct the whole ship on
site and rebuild it once at the laboratory (Figure 8) (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 132).
While this technique is not commonly used it did prove useful for increased
information about shipwreck construction.
46
Figure 7. Cofferdam excavation site of La Belle. Maritime Executive 2012.
Archaeological Finds
La Belle is one of the most recognized French colonial shipwrecks in the
world, and yielded an important artefact collection from a single French period
vessel. Like everything involving La Salle, La Belle’s cargo was extensive and
elaborate containing more than was necessary for the initial start-up of a colony
(Parkman 1963:298). When the ship was excavated, more than one million artefacts
were uncovered, which gave archaeologists a good idea of what was deemed
necessary to start a new colony (Bruseth and Turner 2005: 82). Artefacts from the
La Belle shipwreck site include personal objects such as crucifixes, belt buckles,
glass beads, combs and coins; items for trade, including gold beads, necklaces, rings
and other gold objects; supplies and tools including plates, cutlery, silverware,
mugs, barrels, tools, food stuffs and pottery; arms and munitions including cannons,
guns, swords, cannonballs, bullets and knives; navigation equipment (Texas Beyond
History 2008).
47
Figure 8. Reconstruction of La Belle hull in conservation tank at Texas A&M
University. Texas Parks and Wildlife 2001.
Public Interpretation Tactics
Like many shipwreck excavations, La Belle has dedicated museum exhibits;
however, what sets this shipwreck apart is that there are seven museums that
display artefacts and tell the story of La Salle’s tragic voyage to start a new colony.
All of them are located within close proximity and promote a heritage trail called
The Odyssey Trail (Texas Beyond History 2008). This heritage trail gives visitors a
different perspective on varying aspects of the history and archaeology. It promotes
local and national heritage, as well as local businesses and history. Each museum
has an interactive website with information about the exhibit and bits of history
regarding La Salle and La Belle (Texas Beyond History 2008). These exhibits aid in
48
one of the biggest issues within maritime archaeology within the United States, the
differentiation between archaeology and treasure hunting. The Odyssey heritage
trail promotes good archaeology and helps to provide the public with a better
understanding of what it means to practice archaeology as opposed to treasure
hunting.
The hull remains were excavated and placed into conservation, where they
still remain today (Figure 8) (The Maritime Executive 2012). While the actual hull
remains in an oversized freeze drier, several reconstruction models were built for
study and eventually for display in museums. Glenn Grieco built two 1:12 scale
models of the whole ship and one 1:6 scale model of a cannonade (Figure 9) (Grieco
2003). These models garner interest from the visitors who visit the museum and
provide an idea of what the ship might have looked like before its wrecking event.
The models not only provide public interpretation of the shipwreck, but also give
the public a tangible connection to the history of the project and relate the history of
the vessel to them.
Another way that they brought in public interest and interpretation was to
create a website to allow interested people to monitor the progress and read about
the excavation, preservation and reconstruction (Hall et al. 1997). The interactive
website allows the public to view the excavation site as it was seen by
archaeologists, view the painstaking process of conservation of artefacts at the
Texas A&M University conservation research laboratory, and view an artefact
gallery including two unique sets of artefacts including a “mystery chest” and a
group of odd tools and items that may have belonged to La Salle himself (The
History Blog 2008). While this shipwreck is not considered ancient, it is an
important example of how public outreach can be incorporated into an excavation
and some other methods of how to get the public involved.
49
Figure 9. La Belle reconstruction for public interpretation. Grieco 2000.
Significance
Perhaps the most significant aspect of this archaeological investigation is
what can be learned from the dissection and reconstruction of the hull. Since the
preservation of the hull was incredible, it allowed archaeologists to learn more
about ship building techniques. The history of the wreck is also significant to Texas.
If La Salle had in fact been able to set up a colony within Texas, the Spanish influence
found there today might have been non-existent. Instead of a Spanish based culture,
Texas would have a French derived culture similar to that of Louisiana. It was
therefore vital for the project to relay this message to the public of Texas and teach
them about their history and what could have been if La Salle had in fact been
successful in his colonial endeavours.
50
Many of these interpretation techniques provided some of the first attempts
at digital interpretation. With the use of live video feeds of the excavation and
conservation, the public was able to participate in the excavation and this also
allowed for archaeologists outside of the project to participate and provide input on
what was being uncovered. The digital media that was utilized for the public
interpretation of this project was the first of its kind and has laid the groundwork
for future excavations and public interpretation.
What Can We Take Away From the La Belle Excavation?
Several important lessons can be taken away from this case study. Since this
was one of the first projects to employ digital interpretation techniques, much can
be learned about the positives and negatives regarding methods of conveying the
history. The digital interpretation allowed the public to have a first-hand
perspective of both the excavation and the conservation. While the excavation of the
Bajo de la Campana site is complete, similar live feeds could be provided on the
ARQUA website for the conservation of the artefacts unearthed. If not video footage,
photographs of the stages of conservation could be of great use for public
interpretation.
The Odyssey maritime heritage trail could also be a model for south-eastern
Spain. While there is only one museum there, there are a number of important
heritage sites that could be incorporated into a heritage trail that would promote
the public interpretation not only of the Bajo de la Campana site, but also of
regionally significant sites. The public interpretation model described could be
implemented to utilize regional heritage using displays and other interpretive
media to promote local heritage and the heritage’s historical importance.
51
Chapter 6
The Pepper Wreck Shipwreck
52
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the case study of the Pepper Wreck
shipwreck excavation. This section covers the history of the excavation, a summary
of what was found, what aspects of the project were particularly significant, what
was done with the material found and what lessons we can take away from this case
study.
History of the Pepper Wreck Excavation
A team of archaeologists discovered the Pepper Wreck site in 1994 near the
mouth of the Tagus River near Lisbon, Portugal (Castro 2003:6; 2005:110). The
ship dated to the seventeenth century and wrecked near the fortress São Julião de
Barra (Castro 2003:6). The site was approximately 200 x 100 m, and it was
tentatively identified as that of the Portuguese nau Nossa Senhora dos Mártires, that
wrecked in front of the castle returning from India with a cargo of peppercorns
(Castro 2003:6). It is likely that most of the ship’s cargo was salvaged because of its
close proximity to shore, which seems to be confirmed by contemporary accounts
detailing the wrecking event (Castro 2003:8–10). The site was subsequently
excavated in 1996 and 1997 under the guidance of Dr Alves (Castro 2003:10). While
preliminary excavations recovered a myriad of artefacts, perhaps the most
important aspect of the site, the hull, was not investigated (Castro 2003:11). INA
and the Instituto Português de Archaeologico conducted additional excavations and
surveys of hull remains in 1999 and 2000 (Castro 2003:11).
In 1993 the Portuguese government passed a law that allowed treasure
hunting in Portuguese waters (Castro 2005: 87). This law was finally reversed in
1995 and was reappealed in 1997 (Castro 2005: 87). All archaeological excavations
were put on hold, which is why the Pepper wreck excavation was dormant until
1996. During this time period a campaign to fight against treasure hunting was
undertaken by the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia y Arqueonáutica (Castro 2005:
87). Using the model of the British Nautical Archaeological Society, they battled
against the public perception of treasure hunting and instilled the importance of
53
good archaeological investigations. When the law was finally reversed, work
continued on the Pepper wreck excavation.
Archaeological Finds
The most prolific find on site was the omnipresent layer of peppercorns
(Castro 2005: 89). Other artefacts found on site include three nautical astrolabes,
two dividers, sounding leads, porcelain, stoneware, earthenware, brass, copper,
pewter, silver, and gold objects (Castro 2005: 89). A plethora of organic material
was discovered on site including peppercorns, peach pits, ropes, fabrics, leather and
straw (Castro 2005:89). Manufactured goods discovered on site included pewter
plates, green and yellow Chinese glazed earthenware, Martaban stoneware,
cannonballs, lead shot, iron guns and porcelain dishes (Castro 2005: 91–92).
In addition to the finds listed above, much of the time spent excavating was
focused on recording the hull remains. During the 1999 and 2000 field seasons,
some of the timbers were raised and drawn in a dry environment (Castro 2005: 95).
After the hull had been accurately recorded, the remains were covered with
sandbags and left to rest (Castro 2005: 95).
54
Figure 10. Artefact display of finds from the Pepper Wreck excavation in
the collection of the Musue Nacional de Arqueologia and Arqueonáutica.
Texas A&M Department of Anthropology 2008.
Public Interpretation Tactics
The digital modelling and three-dimensional reconstructions are the most
important aspects of this project due to their implications for public
outreach(Castro 2007). While full-scale models of the site and ship are extremely
useful for public outreach they are limited by the number of people able to travel to
see them. Digital reconstructions, however, can be viewed by the public online
allowing interaction and participation on an international level (Figure 11).
The Pepper wreck also has a dedicated museum exhibit in Lisbon, Portugal at
the Museu de Marinha (Castro 2007; Portuguese Navy 2004;). The museum houses
a small exhibit that displays some of the artefacts found during excavation (Figure
10) (Portuguese Navy 2004). It also contains the first model that was built in 2001
as a representative of the ships suspected construction(Portuguese Navy 2004). The
museum has an interactive website run by the Portuguese navy; however, it is only
55
in Portuguese which limits the usefulness of the site to potential visitors (Portugues
Navy 2004). Many websites are multilingual, which is crucial to attract international
visitors. Another issue with the website is that it is run by the Portuguese Navy
instead, of by the museum itself, which could create problems when website
updates are needed.
Significance
The three-dimensional modelling and public interpretation of the Pepper
Wreck is by far the most significant aspect of this project. The modelling is not only
beneficial for archaeologists to understand how the interior of the ship was utilized
(Figure 12), but also is valuable as a teaching tool for the public. Archaeologists
started working on the three-dimensional modelling in order to understand how
merchants would have packed the interior of the ship (Figure 12 and 13). There
were such a large number of items stored on the ship that it was difficult to
understand how it was loaded, without being able to visualize the interior.
Archaeologists have been utilizing digital three-dimensional modelling to render the
ship’s interior, which was based on the on site observations and recording of the
ship’s hull. The end goal of the three-dimensional rendering is to use it as a teaching
tool for public interpretation.
56
Figure 11. Three-dimensional display of the Pepper Wreck digital reconstruction.
Wells 2008.
What Can We Take Away From the Pepper Wreck Excavation?
The most important lesson we can take away from this project’s public
interpretation tactics is the potential of three-dimensional modelling (Figure 11).
While there were no hull remains for the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation,
there is still potential for three-dimensional modelling of artefacts, the site and the
exhibit. Three-dimensional technology could be implemented onto the ARQUA
website to give the interested public a better idea of what the museum is like before
visiting. While the current ARQUA website does make an attempt at threedimensional modelling of their museum, the current interpretation could be
improved, and could also include individual artefacts that have been rendered for
public interpretation. Additionally a three-dimensional site reconstruction could be
performed and implemented into a display to give the visitors a better idea of what
it would have been like to work on the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site. Overall
there is much potential for three-dimensional modelling and its implementation as a
tool for public interpretation.
57
Figure 12. Digital reconstruction of the Pepper Wreck to show internal holds. Wells
2008.
Figure 13. Digital reconstruction of the Pepper Wreck to show ship construction.
Wells 2008.
58
Chapter 7
The Kyrenia Shipwreck
59
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the case study of the Kyrenia shipwreck
excavation. This section covers the history of the excavation, a summary of what
was found, interpretation techniques, significance of the excavation and what
lessons we can take away from this case study.
History of the Kyrenia Ship Excavation
A copious mound of amphorae was discovered on the bottom of the
Mediterranean ocean in 1965 off the coast of Cyprus (Katzev 2008:76). In the
ensuing years, Michael Katzev led the expedition of one the most influential and
difficult excavations in maritime archaeology. While the techniques seem ancient in
comparison to modern technology, the Kyrenia shipwreck excavation pioneered
some of the most inspirational and innovative techniques in maritime
archaeology(Katzev 2008:76). Since this project was conducted during the
formative years of maritime archaeology, its importance in terms of the field is
monumental and should not be overlooked, when considering recent research and
excavation techniques employed to study the site and lift the hull. Approximately
three hundred and fifty amphorae were mapped and recorded using photography
and robotic technology(Katzev 2008:77). As the team began to excavate, the once
golden timbers began to quickly decay after being exposed to the oxygen rich
environment(Katzev 2008:77). All focus turned from the artefacts and site to the
hull itself. A cunning plan was devised to raise the hull using a crane, which was
successfully undertaken. Today the hull remains are on display in the Kyrenia
Shipwreck Exhibit of the Girne Castle, Cyprus, where is has been successfully
preserved, reconstructed and maintained in a temperature and humidity controlled
environment (Figure 14) (Katzev 2008:77).
60
Figure 14. The Kyrenia ship’s hull remains located in the Kyrenia
Shipwreck Exhibit, Girne Castle, Cyprus. Cypnet 2012.
Archaeological Finds
The most prominent archaeological finds included the hundreds of amphorae
of eight different types (Steffy 1985:72). In addition to a cargo carried in these
amphorae, the ship had a cargo of almonds—more than nine thousand almonds
were excavated from the site (Katzev 1978: 295). Other artefacts discovered on site
included hopper-type millstones, a larger copper cauldron, course and fine pottery,
61
three small black glazed pitchers, two casserole lids, mixing bowls, fish weights,
wooden utensils, tools, and a few coins (Katzev 1978: 297; Stefy 1985:72).
Public Interpretation Tactics
Similar to other projects, this case study used replicas of the shipwreck that
were constructed for both archaeological and public interpretation applications
(Katzev and Katzev 1985:164). Three sailing reconstructions were built of the
Kyrenia ships. The first was named Kyrenia II, the second Kyrenia III—which was an
exact replica of Kyrenia II—and the final one was named Kerynia Liberty. Each
reconstruction was built for a different purpose.
Figure 15. Kyrenia III replica housed in Fukouka, Japan. The Kyrenia Shipwreck
Project 2000.
Kyrenia II was the first to be constructed, and the vessel was built applying
its ancient construction techniques following its original hull shape concomitant
with the archaeological evidence (Katzev and Katzev 1985:164). Shipbuilders
commenced construction on November 1, 1982 and completed the vessel on May 9,
1985 when it was launched for sailing trials and testing its sailing properties
62
(Katzev and Katzev 1985:164–170). Sailing trials of the Kyrenia II began in
September of 1986 on a maiden voyage from Piraeus, Greece to Paphos,
Cyprus(Katzev 1990:245). This voyage mimicked a common ancient trade route and
it Kyrenia II’s crew over 25 days in which they covered 600 nautical miles (Katzev
1990:245). After Kyrenia II had successfully sailed on its maiden voyages, it also
went on several other voyages to prove its sea worthiness. It travelled to New York
in 1986, Japan in 1988 and West Germany in 1989 (Modiano 1986). As a result of
this voyage, the Japanese built a replica of Kyrenia II for display purposes. Kyrenia
III was built in 1990 and since it has been on permanent display in Fukuoka, Japan
(Figure 15) (Cariolou 2012). This not only solidified international interest, but also
provided additional research on ship construction and building techniques.
The final Kyrenia reconstruction, the Kerynia Liberty, was started in 2001
and was completed in 2002 using modern construction techniques (Figure 16)
(Cyprus News Agency 2004).They Kerynia Liberty was constructed to take part in
the Olympics, an international cultural event watched all over the world, and
intended for the purposes of experimental archaeology in which the shape of the
vessel and sailing ability play a more important role than its original construction
method (Cyprus News Agency 2004). Symbolic gifts were transported on board to
the birthplace of the Olympics. Kerynia Liberty transported copper for the bronze
medals as well as wine, almonds and oil that are all symbolic of ancient trade
(Cyprus News Agency 2004). The reconstruction would make several stops along
the way and participate in various ceremonies and celebrations of culture.
While these reconstructions were built specifically to answer archaeological
questions, they were also in turn great for public outreach and sparking local
interest. They not only provided information about ancient techniques for sailing,
storage and life on board, but they also provided great interpretation for the
community. Even though the excavation of the Kyrenia shipwreck occurred decades
ago, it remained in the public’s eye—the participation of Kerynia Liberty in the
Olympics is a prime example of this.
63
Figure 16. Kerynia Liberty on a test run. Archaeology News Network 2012.
Significance
Overall the most important and successful approach to public outreach for
the Kyrenia shipwreck project has been the sailing reconstructions and trials. They
created an international audience and provided information about the project to
people who would have otherwise never heard of it. This project was clearly a great
success, because it is nearly impossible to travel through Cyprus today without
seeing some form of the Kyrenia ship. The ship has been placed on coins, stamps,
passports and other everyday items, such as for example on the Makkas winery
labels, which display the pride the nation has for the archaeological work conducted
on this ancient shipwreck (Makkas 2012). The promotion of a good archaeological
excavation like this is paramount in the battle against treasure hunting. When
projects, such as this, can show the public what good archaeology is and instil a
64
national interest, it becomes much easier to protect and study archaeological sites
from the danger of treasure hunting.
What Can We Take Away From the Kyrenia Excavation?
The public interpretation tactics of the Kyrenia excavation were clearly a
great success, due to the national interest created. The important thing to take away
from this case study is the use of international media to instil interest in the public.
Showcasing some of the work on archaeological reconstructions proved to be
beneficial for the public interpretation of this historic shipwreck. This case study
shows us the importance of utilizing the international audience to garner interest
and teach the difference between true archaeology and treasure hunting. It is
important to provide the public with information on how an archaeological
excavation is conducted and what it can bring both the local populace and the
international audience. This case study shows that it is possible to create a sense of
ownership within a country of its maritime heritage and an eagerness to protect it,
and how that heritage can be incorporated into the culture.
65
Chapter 8
The Bajo de la Campana Shipwreck and the ARQUA Museum
66
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the case study of the Bajo de la
Campana excavation and the associated ARQUA museum. This section will cover the
history of the excavation, a summary of what was found and an analysis of the
ARQUA museum in Cartagena, Spain which is responsible for the public
interpretation of the material recovered.
History of the Bajo de la Campana Excavation
The Bajo de la Campana site is located 40 km northeast of Cartagena, Spain
and is 2.5 km off shore of La Manga del Mar Menor, Spain(Polzer 2008:5). The site
itself lies in 15 to 20 metres of water and is approximately 20 metres wide by 20
metres long (Polzer 2011; Polzer 2008:5). The location of the shipwreck lies just
below a submerged rock outcropping (Polzer 2011). The rock reef forms part of a
small island chain consisting of three small landmasses(Polzer 2011). This island
chain runs north to south and is located in the Mediterranean Sea on the eastern
side of Spain. Isla Grossa is the largest of the three islands and is the southernmost
landmass in the chain. Today it serves as a bird sanctuary. The middle island is
called Farallón Rock, which in Spanish translates to “cliff” or “rock face”. The final
island and northern most point of the island chain is Bajo de la Campana, meaning
“shallow of the bell”(Polzer 2008:58). The name stems from a bell which was
mounted on top of the island to warn ships of the navigational hazard (Polzer 2011).
While today the island lies approximately 5 metres below the surface of the water, it
used to break the surface and protrude over a meter until demolitions took place
(Polzer 2011). Demolitions undertaken by the local Spanish government tried to
reduce the risk of the navigational hazard; however, vessels continued to strand
themselves on the small rock island (Polzer 2011). Additional explosives were
placed on the island by scrap iron salvagers to blow up more modern wrecks and
collect scrap metals from them (Polzer 2011). This created a plethora of large
boulders that were spilled onto the site, which destroyed some and protected others
of the artefacts (Polzer 2011).
67
Commercial divers and scrap iron salvagers discovered the site as early as
1958. After its discovery, recreational divers picked up artefacts and took souvenirs
from this submerged rock island, which is and was a popular dive site (Polzer 2011).
Much of the initial material taken from the site by early looters and pillagers was
turned over to the Spanish Ministry of Culture (Polzer 2011). After the material was
returned and further studies were conducted, it was determined that there were
actually three historical wrecks on the site (Polzer 2011). The first was a seventh or
early sixth century B.C. Phoenician vessel. The other two were Punic/Roman
vessels, one dating to the second century B.C. and the other to the first century A.D.
(Polzer 2011).
The materials recovered eventually led to a study of the area that started in 2006
with the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) communicating with the Spanish
Ministry of Culture and reaching an agreement in 2007 (Polzer 2011). In 2007 the
Iron Age Phoenician shipwreck project officially began with an intrusive survey to
determine the extent of the site and how much material remained (Polzer 2011;
Polzer 2007:58). The excavation at the Bajo de la Campana site commenced in 2008
and continued until 2011 (Polzer 2011). There has been a variety of material
discovered, which has shed light on the mercantile activities of the Phoenicians in
the west during that era and could provide even more new insights with further
study.
Archaeological Finds
The archaeological finds discovered during the excavation are very
significant, and will provide the ARQUA museum with a rich trove of material for a
formal museum exhibit when it is made for the Bajo de la Campana excavation. A
variety of raw and finished goods were discovered on site (Polzer 2012: 6). The
most recognized find on the site was the large number of ivory elephant tusks
(Polzer 2011). Fifty-four complete tusks have been recovered as of the end of the
2011 excavation season (Polzer 2011). Other items found on site include worked
ivory pieces, metal ingots, galena, pottery, luxury items, wooden combs, Baltic
amber, pine nuts, seeds, ballast stones, dunnage, wood fragments, amphora, plates,
68
tripod bowls, oil lamp, jugs, pitchers, a pedestal, bronze and wooden furniture, a
green stone rod, and a bronze object (Polzer 2011).
ARQUA
Figure 17. Entrance to the ARQUA museum. Joshua Jones 2011.
When discussing the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck project, it is vital to also
discuss the aid of the ARQUA maritime institution in the excavation and its role in
the public interpretation within the region. Without ARQUA the project would not
have been possible. ARQUA has aided in everything from transportation to artefact
conservation and restoration. This museum is dedicated to the protection of
underwater cultural heritage and the study/display of ancient vessels from the Iron
Age to the medieval period. The ARQUA museum has become famous throughout
Spain for its museum display techniques and modern architecture (Figure 17).
69
Following closely in the footsteps of the MARQ museum, ARQUA has featured a
simple yet appealing design that highlights the importance of both the excavation
techniques and the artefacts themselves. The History of the region is vast and dates
back to ancient times. The important role of the ARQUA museum is to teach and
promote the history of the region so that there is a public awareness of the work
and how it could benefit Spain. Like many European countries, Spain relies heavily
on tourism as an income source. ARQUA both provides a tourist destination, and
serves as a resource for the local population to learn about their heritage and the
history of the region.
The museum exhibition area itself is a very striking and effective
combination of elegance and ambiance. It appeals to visitors with varying cultural
backgrounds by providing multiple languages on all displays. The Phoenician exhibit
gives a fair representation of artefacts that are common among various Phoenician
shipwreck sites including the Bajo de la Campana. While most of the finds of the
Bajo de la Campana excavation are still in conservation, a small representation of
artefacts from the site are on display, mostly of items recovered by the Spanish
Ministry of Culture. It provides a representation of what might have been common
on a Phoenician trading vessel travelling the Mediterranean thousands of years ago.
In combination with the exhibits, there is a digital reconstruction of the
museum and its exhibits available on the ARQUA website. This is a great tool for
public interpretation, and can provide a museum experience without ever leaving
home (ARQUA 2012). The ARQUA website is by any measure one of the most
comprehensive and visually appealing museum websites in the world today. Like
the building itself, the website provides a simple yet appealing design. Not only is it
visually appealing, it is packed full of information about the museum, the exhibits,
resources and upcoming events. It is presented in five languages that are commonly
used in Spain. The attempt to make the website user-friendly is unrivalled by most
of the world’s museum websites. The website also does something that most
museum websites do not; it provides links to other museum websites related to
maritime archaeology. This is both educational and fundamental for collaboration
with professionals in the field. The website provides crucial information regarding
70
the legislation and protection of underwater cultural heritage, and sources to
contact if there are any additional questions or if something of note is found. All the
museum publications and articles concerning the museum are also available on the
website; however, only a selection is available in full for the public due to copyright
restrictions. ARQUA also posts dates to seminars and classes that are aimed to teach
the locals about the importance of maritime archaeology and maritime heritage.
These classes are held at ARQUA in dedicated classrooms and learning centres.
ARQUA Exhibit Observations and Analysis
Figure 18. LCD display screen displaying underwater work with divers and
bubbles in the background providing the feeling of being underwater. Joshua
Jones 2011.
This section serves to describe the ARQUA exhibition area and the
observations that were made by the author in the field. As the ARQUA museum is
approached the first thing of note is the unique design of the building. The building
from the ground level actually looks like two separate buildings; however, the two
71
structures are connected underground. To enter the museum, visitors pass between
the buildings and are greeted on one side with the signage for the museum (Figure
17), and the other with windows that allow them to view the hanging models of the
Kyrenia ship and an Iberian ship from the age of Global Seafaring. To enter the
museum, visitors pass next to the sign and begin their descent into the museum. The
entire entrance mimics the descent that divers make underwater when visiting
archaeological sites. Before visitors enter the museum, they thus experience
something unfamiliar. Upon entering the museum visitors enter a large open space
with the ticket booth to the left as well as the gift shop. The museum has a darker
colour scheme, symbolic of an underwater environment. Upon entering the
exhibition gallery, the first exhibit that visitors experience relates to the history of
maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage legislation, and it explains why
and how archaeology is different from treasure hunting. This section is important
for immediately informing the public as to why this kind of work is done and how it
differs from treasure hunting. This is perhaps one of the most important aspects of
the museum because it provides the legislation and reasoning behind all the
archaeological work conducted within the institution and also the importance on an
international level. The UNESCO convention is discussed and displayed for its
importance within the field of maritime archaeology (Figure 19).
After the initial displays regarding what maritime archaeology is and why it
is done, the visitor is encouraged to continue by following the divers that are
displayed on large screens on wall which aid in the atmosphere of the museum and
help to give the feeling that the visitor is in fact underwater and participating in one
of the archaeological dives (Figure 18). As the divers are followed the visitor
proceeds to the next exhibit, which is an interpretation of how maritime
archaeology is performed. This exhibit uses interactive displays to explain the
physics of diving and how the work is performed.
72
Figure 19. UNESCO Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage display which
explains the importance of the convention and its purpose in the protection of
underwater cultural heritage. Joshua Jones 2011.
73
Figure 20. Mazarrón shipwreck site reconstruction for public interpretation.
Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 21. Close up of artefacts on Mazarrón shipwreck reconstruction.
Joshua Jones 2011.
74
A large reconstruction of the Mazarrón shipwreck site is the centrepiece of
this exhibit, and displays the shipwreck and its cargo in situ (Figure 20 and 21). This
is important for the experience of visitors who do not dive and do not know what a
maritime archaeological site might look like underwater. In addition to the site
reconstruction, a variety of interactive displays help to explain how archaeological
sites are found and what should be done if one is discovered (Figure 34).
The explanation of dive physics is also important to portray the dangers and
difficulties of working and excavating underwater (Figure 22). From the
observations taken in the ARQUA museum this exhibit usually keeps visitors’
attentions the longest. This is in part due to the interactive displays, which allow the
visitor to play with the displays and come to understand the meaning behind them.
These displays are also the most worn displays, showing their success as an
interpretation tool. This section is also the most successful in garnering youth
interest. Younger visitors, especially children, tend to spend the most time
interacting with these displays and are generally more interested in understanding
the science behind the displays than are older visitors.
As the visitors move along, they come to the next exhibit, which is
interpretation regarding the conservation of the materials found. This exhibit uses
moulds and reconstructions of artefacts to show what an artefact would look like
before and after conservation (Figure 23 and 24). It also provides an interactive
display of the equipment used to conserve the artefacts after they reach the
museum. This is vital for the public’s understanding of the work required after an
artefact is found on the seabed. An understanding of the entire process from
excavation to conservation provides a better understanding of the overall process
required to place artefacts within an exhibit. The progression of interpretation of
the first half of the museum is essential for a public understanding of the process
and what it means for an artefact to be raised from the sea bed with an end goal of
being displayed in a museum. The displays also aid in showing the difference
between treasure hunting and true archaeology.
75
Figure 22. Interactive display explaining the laws of dive physics and
what archaeologists must overcome working underwater. Joshua Jones
2011.
76
Figure 23. Anchor display showing the stages before and after conservation.
Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 24. Amphora display showing the states before and after conservation.
Joshua Jones 2011.
77
The museum displays then move from interpretation of archaeology to
artefacts that have been found during scientific investigations. It is important to
note that the interactive interpretation does not end here. Additional interactive
displays continue all the way to the exit of the exhibition area. This is one area of
museum display where the ARQUA museum rises above the traditional methods.
This also keeps the visitor intrigued and interested in both the artefacts and the
archaeology involved. The museum is not all glass cases with artefacts and treasures
found on archaeological sites. The engagement with the audience was shown to be
successful by the observations taken. Generally, visitors spent more time with the
interactive displays than they did looking at the artefacts. The more time spent
interacting with displays the more likely that the visitor left with more knowledge of
underwater archaeology than they previously had.
Figure 25. Display demonstrating what ivory tusks look like before and after
conservation. Joshua Jones 2011.
78
The artefacts exhibit a progression of ancient cultures and technologies. The
first exhibit that the visitor encounters in the Phoenician exhibit, which displays
some of the artefacts that were recovered from the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck
site by the Spanish Ministry of Culture (Figures 25, 32 and 33). Many of the artefacts
displayed were some of the original finds by scrap iron salvagers and divers on the
Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site. This display will surely be altered and changed
as the artefacts from the excavation complete conservation and are ready to be
displayed (Figures 32 and 33). Hopefully additional interpretation will be added to
describe the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site and its significance in Phoenician
history. The display as it exists now, however, does give some explanation of whom
the Phoenicians were and what their role in Spain was. Maps of where they were
from and who they were help to give the visitor a better understanding of how the
material being displayed would have been utilized by them (Figure 26).
Figure 26. Map showing the trade routes of the Phoenicians and their influence in
the Mediterranean. Joshua Jones 2011.
79
The next exhibition relates to the Romans, which includes the most extensive
collection of artefacts. These artefacts are centrally located in the museum and are
surrounded by interactive interpretation (Figures 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31). As the
visitor comes to the end of the Roman exhibition, they are presented with a unique
interactive display. The display is a digital map of the ancient world and historical
ports and harbours (Figure 27). A projector above the display projects an image
onto an interactive touch screen. When the visitor touches one of the cities listed on
the map, a blow up of the area appears with additional information about that
particular city (Figure 27).
Figure 27. Interactive touch screen map of the ancient world ports. Joshua Jones
2011.
The map includes Phoenician, Greek, Roman and other ports that were
crucial for the trade and interaction of people in the ancient Mediterranean. This
80
display is also one of the most utilized interpretation techniques within the
museum. It is also extremely valuable because it will not wear out quickly, unlike
many of the other interactive displays. Since it is digital, and the only interaction the
visitors have with the display is the hard touch screen surface, it is likely to last a
long time. More touch screen displays like this should be incorporated into
museums, in order to garner interest and teach the public about the history involved
within the museum. From the observations taken, most visitors spent a good deal of
time interacting with the display, once they realized it was a touch screen display. It
was, however, noted that many visitors did not realize it was a touch screen until
informed by museum staff. Once they were aware, they generally spent five to ten
minutes playing and interacting with the display.
As visitors approach the exit, a large model of a ship hangs above, which is
the model that can be seen from the glass windows on the ground floor. Below the
ship model are computers dedicated to interactive digital media. This brings them
back to the original exhibit, which portrays the importance of maritime archaeology
and its context within scientific research. It again emphasizes the importance of
archaeological research and again differentiates treasure hunting from scientific
research. Visitors then exit the exhibition area and begins their ascent back up to the
ground level.
From the general observations taken while in the field, visitors spent the
most time using the interactive displays and spent little time observing the actual
artefacts. This is important to note, because the interactive displays generally
provided more information than the displays themselves. In terms of museum
display, the focus of the ARQUA museum was based on interactive displays to teach
the public about maritime archaeology. The emphasis was on the importance of the
exhibits in answering questions about the history of the region and what might be
learned from future research. The focus on the history learned from the
interpretative displays is essential to the success of this museum. ARQUA utilized
these well, and promotes the future of maritime archaeology, both in terms of
history and research. Overall, the museum is successful at public interpretation and
will surely become even better with the addition of the Bajo de la Campana
81
shipwreck material. It will be important for ARQUA to also incorporate additional
interactive displays once the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck material is added, to
provide the visitor with valuable information regarding the history of the
Phoenicians and show what can be learned from an archaeological investigation.
82
Figure 28. Reconstruction of a Phoenician ship and its cargo. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 29. Reconstruction of a Punic ship and its cargo. Joshua Jones 2011.
83
Figure 30. Interpretive display of Phoenician port. Joshua Jones 2011.
Figure 31. Interpretive display of Roman port. Joshua Jones 2011.
84
Figure 32. Stone anchor interpretive display in the Phoenician exhibit. Joshua Jones
2011.
85
Figure 33. Phoenician exhibit showing common items found on board a Phoenician
vessel. Joshua Jones 2011.
86
Figure 34. Interactive interpretive display demonstrating magnetometer
surveying and sub bottom profiling. Joshua Jones 2011.
87
Chapter 9
Interpretation and Analyses
88
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to review and analyse the public interpretation
techniques described in each case study. This chapter will also determine their value
for public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck excavation. Finally
this chapter will also analyse the ARQUA museum’s public interpretation
techniques.
Public Interpretation Techniques Analysed
The public interpretation techniques described in the case study chapters are
a foundation for the analysis of public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana
shipwreck excavation. Each case study presented methods to garner public interest
and educate the public about the archaeology and history of each site. While many
of these methods proved to be invaluable, other techniques used could be improved
upon for increased success of public outreach for the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck
excavation.
The Uluburun shipwreck excavation provided four significant public
interpretation tactics. The first and arguably most important was the travelling
exhibition that visited Germany and the United States. These exhibitions are
essential for creating an international audience and teaching the public about its
international importance. In the case of the Uluburun shipwreck excavation, what
was discovered from the site and the artefacts changed the way trade was
understood during the late Bronze Age. Travelling exhibition also provide a way for
the public to view artefacts that are otherwise stored half way across the globe in a
museum that might not be visited other wise. Exhibitions such as this grant
archaeologists and scholars the opportunity to weigh in their thoughts and
interpretation of the material, which could lead to a better understanding of the
overall importance the artefacts provide. A travelling exhibit, such as Beyond
Babylon, planned for the Bajo de la Campana material is surely going to increase
public awareness and improve the current understanding of Phoenician trade in the
West.
89
The next interpretation technique that can be taken from the Uluburun
shipwreck excavation is the creation of dioramas. Dioramas provide a simple and
effective way for archaeologists to demonstrate what a site might have looked like.
These displays can help to educate the public about a shipwreck site and what
common things might be found. In the case of the Uluburun shipwreck, a diorama
was created to show not only what the site looked like, but also where some of the
artefacts found would fit into the hull of the ship (Figure 4). While no hull remains
were found on the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site, a diorama of the underwater
excavation could provide insight into both the work conducted and what was found.
This technique has shown to be successful for a variety of excavations both
terrestrial and maritime, and can be readily identified in many museums around the
world. In the case of the ARQUA museum, a diorama already exists of the Mazarrón
shipwreck excavation (Figures 20 and 21). Since a diorama already exists within the
museum and demonstrates what an underwater archaeological excavation looks
like, another diorama of the Bajo de la Campana site might not be necessary. A small
interactive diorama however could benefit the museum and the Bajo de la Campana
shipwreck excavation display.
The next tactic utilized by the Uluburun shipwreck excavation was the
implementation of a life size reconstruction sunk for the purpose of dive tourism.
This provides the diving community not only with another great dive site, but also
educational values. Purpose sunk reconstructions are rare, and the Uluburun ship
reconstruction is an excellent example of how public interest in archaeology can
create something beneficial for the whole community. This particular reconstruction
was built, placed and sunk by a private group of dive enthusiasts who wanted to
share their passion with others. Since south-eastern Spain has an avid diving
community, this public interpretation technique could be successful. Again while no
hull remains were found on the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site, a good
understanding of Phoenician vessels could provide the groundwork for a
reconstruction to be purpose sunk for dive tourism within the region. This could
also provide archaeological research into site formation processes within the region
90
and could provide a better understanding of how shipwrecks in the area degrade
over time.
The final tactic that can be utilized from the Uluburun shipwreck excavation
is the creation of online learning tools for students. The Ellis School in Pittsburgh, Pa
created an online learning tool for its students. This was also made public and
allows for visitors to the website to learn about the Uluburun shipwreck and its
historical significance. The creation of learning tools like these for primary school
students will be essential for the future of maritime archaeology. As with most
things, the future of the field lies within the youth. Without proper educational
programs like this, a desire to advance the field of maritime archaeology will not be
possible. Educational tools like this should be implemented into the ARQUA
museums website to educate about the Bajo de la Campana site and the importance
of maritime archaeology in general.
The La Belle case study provided two important interpretation tactics to
educate the public. The first was the implementation of a heritage trail. The Odyssey
heritage trail guides visitors to seven different museums that explain the story of La
Salle and his tragic conquest to establish a colony in the United States. Had La Salle
succeeded in his endeavour, the history of Texas would be much different than it is
today. The heritage trail promotes this understanding of history and demonstrates
why maritime archaeological investigations are important. Each of the seven
museums provides a different perspective on the material recovered from the La
Belle shipwreck excavation and aids in the overall understanding of its history.
Heritage trails are a great way to promote local history and get visitors out
discovering the history for themselves. The ARQUA museum could implement a
heritage trail that takes visitors around the region and teaches them about historic
sites and museums.
The other technique utilized in the La Belle excavation was the
implementation of live video feeds. Artefact excavation and conservation were
recorded and uploaded to the Internet where they could be watched in real time.
This use of knowledge is vital for the ever-changing technologically based society.
Not only does this provide education and opportunity for scholarly collaboration,
91
but also is a fun and unique way to demonstrate how the work on an archaeological
site progresses. The ARQUA museum could utilize this technique to show how
artefacts progress through conservation and how they change overtime. While a live
video feed might not work as well in this case, time-lapse photography of artefacts
could provide educational information about the processes of artefacts in
conservation.
The Pepper wreck excavation provided this study with an interpretation
tactic that is still being perfected, three-dimensional modelling. While the primary
purpose of the three-dimensional modelling of the Pepper wreck was to better
understand the utilization of space within the hull, it has also proven to be a
valuable teaching source. For many, visualizations provide an educational medium
that is vital. The three-dimensional modelling provides an in depth look at the
construction of the ship and how the space on board was utilized. With so many
items being crammed into the holds of a trading vessel, it is hard to understand just
how everything fits without visualizations. In the case of the Bajo de la Campana
shipwreck excavation, no hull remains were found, but that does not mean that
digital reconstructions are worthless. Reconstructions of artefacts for education
could provide the ARQUA website with additional material for teaching about
particular artefacts and their significance in ancient times.
The final case study, the Kyrenia shipwreck excavation, showed that
reconstructions are invaluable for creating national and international pride of a
heritage resource. The three reconstructions created in light of the archaeological
work conducted were utilized to educate the public about the importance of the
excavation and what was learned from it. The reconstructions were utilized in
international festivals including the Olympics, which helped create a national pride
within Cyprus. While a reconstruction of the ship from the Bajo de la Campana
shipwreck excavation is not possible, reconstructions of Phoenician vessels could
provide some insight both archaeologically and publicly. The ARQUA museum
possesses many artefacts from Phoenician shipwreck sites, and could utilize a
reconstruction of a Phoenician vessel to promote the Phoenician history and create
a national pride in the work being conducted.
92
The ARQUA Museum Public Interpretation Tactics
The ARQUA museum in Cartagena is the primary contributor to the public
interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site. While much of the
interpretation has yet to occur, the current strategies utilized in the museum can be
assessed. Analysing the observations and answering the questions set out on page
nineteen will do this.
The ARQUA museum as an institution is successful in its education and
interpretation of maritime archaeological sites within Spain. The museum does an
excellent job in its portrayal of maritime archaeology and its importance within
modern society. It also provides the background as to why and how it is done,
establishing a foundation for the work conducted within the institution. The
questions that were considered for evaluating the success of the museums
approaches to public interpretation were:
o Does the exhibit attract and hold visitor attention, and if so for how
long is the audience engaged?
o Are visitors learning?
o Does the exhibit meet the needs of the public and does the exhibit
address and answer the public’s questions?
o Do visitors feel the museum experience is personally rewarding?
o Does the exhibit promote continued interest in the subject being
displayed?
o Will a visitor return to the museum and why or why not? (Dean 1996:
93).
In order to answer these questions, the observations from museum visits were
utilized. The first question was answered by observing visitors and recording the
length of time they spent at each exhibit. In general the most time was spent in the
dive physics, archaeology and conservation exhibit, which demonstrated how
archaeology was performed and what is done after an excavation. This exhibit not
only contains the majority of the interactive displays, but also provides the
reasoning behind the museum. This is what captivated audiences the longest, not
93
only because of the interactive displays, but also with the information provided.
Visitors spent more time reading interpretive boards in this exhibit than any other.
This immediately shows the success of this exhibit. The least amount of time was
spent in the Phoenician exhibit, which features material from the Bajo de la
Campana excavation. Hopefully, with the increase in material after conservation and
a redesign of this exhibit, more time will be spent understanding the history of the
Phoenicians and their importance within Spain.
The next question addressed was are visitors learning. The only way to truly
understand this is to administer a questionnaire; however this was not performed
due to time restrictions. Instead, visitors were approached and asked simple
questions to try and understand if they were indeed learning something they
previously didn’t know. In all cases of personal communication, visitors were in fact
leaving with knowledge they previously didn’t possess. This in itself shows that the
museum interpretation is working and is educating visitors on the importance of
maritime archaeology within Spain.
The next question was much more difficult to assess without the use of
questionnaires. Observation helped to answer this by simply understanding
whether the visitor was happy after they left or not. In most cases the visitor was
pleased and left satisfied. However, in some cases, the visitor felt that more
information could be provided in certain exhibits, but overall they were satisfied.
To understand whether or not the experience was personally rewarding
requires an interview and questionnaire to comprehend the visitors’ take on the
overall experience. Without the full completion of the Bajo de la Campana exhibit
however, it did not make sense to interview without the whole picture being
observed. This question will therefore be left unanswered and remain a possibility
for future research.
The museum provides an experience, which promotes continued interest in
the subject of maritime archaeology. It was the author’s experience that after the
museum was visited, additional questions and interests were sparked and further
research was performed. This appeared to be a common trend among visitors. What
is so successful about the ARQUA museums approach is that much of this
94
information can be accessed on their website for additional learning tools and
education.
Finally it was important to consider whether or not a visitor would return to
the institution. In general it can be assumed that yes visitors would return if they
were in the region, however, since many of the visitors are not from the area it could
be many years before they do return. One way to ensure that the public does keep
coming back is to continually change exhibits and update them as discoveries are
made and artefacts complete conservation. One exhibit in particular that is certain
to change is the Phoenician exhibit which has yet to include many of the artefacts
discovered from the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site.
Overall the ARQUA museum is successful in the public outreach tactics,
which they have in place. They will of course improve with the continual
development of the exhibits and with the increase in public education. The themes
within the museum and ambiance created however are unrivalled.
95
Chapter 10
Conclusions
96
Introduction
The purpose of this final chapter is to summarize the finds of this research
and provide answers to the aims set out in the introductory chapter. This chapter
also summarizes the important interpretation techniques used by the case studies
and how they could be incorporated into the interpretation of the Bajo de la
Campana shipwreck excavation.
Interpretation vs Outreach
One of the main aims of this thesis was to differentiate between public
outreach and public interpretation. The principal difference is that public outreach
occurs during excavation to garner public interest, protect the site and increase
public awareness of the scientific excavation, while public interpretation occurs
after the excavation is complete and primarily serves to teach the public about the
findings and the methods used to excavate the site. Public interpretation is generally
aimed at a much larger audience and usually incorporates international audiences
in order increase the awareness of not only the finds but also the field itself. The
interpretation that occurs after the excavation is vital for the public understanding
of the archaeological research and can be used to distinguish the difference between
treasure hunting and a scientific excavation. This is important to start teaching the
public, because with time there will be no question about the harm that a treasure
hunting can do to an archaeological site.
As anecdotal evidence to this, a look can be taken at the public’s awareness of
littering. In the not so distant past, it was common for people to litter wherever they
were without thinking about the repercussions of their litter. Through multiple
campaigns and implemented fines for littering, awareness has been created about
the negative effects of not properly disposing trash. Like littering, if the public is
made aware of the detrimental effects of treasure hunting, the view of treasure
hunting will change and will eventually be viewed as harmful to the true
understanding of archaeological sites and the historical benefits sites can bring. It is
important to consider this and the effect that it will have in the future. It is therefore
vital to properly teach the public about the real benefits of scientific excavations.
97
While public outreach helps play a role in the education of the local public
during an excavation, public interpretation plays a much larger role in reaching a
wider audience.
Interpretation of Case Studies and Their Application to the Bajo de la Campana
Excavated Material
The case studies observed in this thesis provide many unique methods for
public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck. Since the Bajo de la
Campana is still in its infantile stage of public interpretation, the options are
virtually endless. If the right combination of techniques is employed, the Bajo de la
Campana excavation has the potential of creating an international audience and
educating them on the importance of scientific archaeological excavations. Since
there have been limited studies on Phoenician trade in the western Mediterranean,
the potential for teaching the public about their history is eternal.
The methods utilized in the case studies observed will be discussed and
related to their potential for the Bajo de la Campana excavation. The Uluburun
shipwreck excavation shows how a museum can become a cultural centre for
maritime archaeology and how public interpretation of the finds can change the way
the public understands the history of an ancient people. The main tactic that should
be taken away from the Uluburun shipwreck excavation is the utilization of a
travelling exhibit to teach the public on an international audience. A similar
exhibition to that of the Beyond Babylon is currently being planned and will utilize
the material excavated from the Bajo de la Campana site in order to educate about
the Iron Age and its historical importance in the Mediterranean. Not only will this
promote the history of the Iron Age, but it will also provide a first-hand perspective
of the work conducted at the Bajo de la Campana site. This will again be vital in
differentiating treasure hunting from scientific archaeology. These types of exhibits
are vital to the publics understanding of the topic and will be crucial for the future of
archaeological excavations.
Other tactics that can be taken away from the public interpretation of this
site include interactive online learning and site replicas underwater. Interactive
98
online learning is a simple and effective method of teaching. Not only can it reach a
wide audience easily, but also it can be accessed around the world. This allows for
education on a large scale and provides the groundwork for learning in classrooms.
Teaching the youth will be essential for the differentiation between treasure
hunting and scientific archaeology to come to fruition within society.
The La Belle shipwreck excavation provided several important tactics for
public interpretation. First it explored the use of live feeds and digital media that aid
in the interpretation of material excavated on site. Something similar to this could
be utilized by the ARQUA museum in order to help show the process artefacts go
through in their conservation. The best way to show how an artefact is transformed
from something found on site to what is in a display is to show how it transforms in
real time. Since this is a relatively slow process for certain artefacts, a stop motion
film could be utilized instead to provide the same effect. Interactive digital media
could also be created and implemented on the ARQUA website to further aid in the
understanding of how the artefacts are transformed. These could also be
implemented into an interpretive display within the museum both in the Bajo de la
Campana shipwreck exhibit or the conservation exhibit. While the conservation
exhibit shows what an artefact looks like before and after conservation, it could be
useful to show how it transforms in the form of pictures or video. A time lapse or
stop motion film of the object would be a great way to implement this technique and
will provide a great interpretive understanding of how the object changes and
evolves.
The other interpretive technique we can take away from the La Belle
shipwreck excavation is the implementation of a heritage trail. Since the majority of
the interpretation of material occurs within the museum, this would be a great way
to get visitors travel around the local landmarks and learn about the history of the
area. If a heritage trail were to be created it could utilize interpretive signage and
other museums to help further explain the local history. Heritage trails have been
shown to be successful worldwide and are an integral part of heritage tourism.
The Pepper Wreck excavation utilized digital media and three-dimensional
modelling to help both the archaeologists understanding of ship design and the
99
publics understanding of what a ship might have looked like both inside and out.
This method is still in its juvenile stage, however three-dimensional modelling could
be a valuable resource to provide the public with an understanding of what it might
have been like to excavate on the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck site. Utilizing the
display screens already in place at the ARQUA museum, a three-dimensional display
of the site and an excavation taking place, might aid in the publics understanding of
what it truly means to work underwater. This would not only aid the excavation
exhibit, but would provide a first-hand perspective of what an archaeological
excavation looks like underwater. It would also provide additional atmosphere to
the museum and truly make the visitor feel like they are underwater and taking
place in an excavation.
The Kyrenia shipwreck excavations use of models and reconstructions to
create a national pride in the work conducted, is an invaluable lesson on how to
garner public interest. While it is not possible for the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck
to create models of the ship since no hull remained, it is still possible to utilize some
of the public interpretation tactics to increase awareness of the findings and create a
national pride in the archaeological investigations conducted underwater. Festivals
and seminars would be useful in celebrating the work conducted within Spanish
waters, and create pride in archaeology as opposed to treasure hunting.
Thesis Aims Revisited
As set out in the first chapter, the aim of this thesis was to determine how
does public interpretation after a scientific archaeological excavation aid in
informing the public of the significance of underwater cultural heritage sites? This
has been clearly answered in the analysis of the case studies and has been shown to
be of vital importance to the education of the public. The main way that the public
can be engaged is through the implementation of public interpretation tactics.
Public interpretation provides education about underwater cultural heritage sites
and their importance.
The importance and understanding of museum display theory was also
addressed in the observations and analysis of the ARQUA museum. The ARQUA
100
museum has gone to great lengths to make sure and include as many tactics of
proper museum display as possible and has proved to be an icon for these
techniques. These tactics also help to engage the public through their public
interpretation by educating them and providing them with the opportunity for
learning.
The public interpretation tactics utilized by the five case studies were
analysed in depth and therefore have answered the aim as to what tactics were used
and how successful each was. Finally, identifying what constitutes successful
interpretation has been found to be in the eye of the beholder; however, it is clear
that public interest generally suggests a successful approach.
The Future of Bajo de la Campana Interpretation
While there has been limited public interpretation of the Bajo de la Campana
excavation, the future of the project is bright. Since the majority of the material is
still in conservation, there is much research to come. Many of the interpretation
tactics for this project have yet to be put in place. National Geographic articles,
travelling exhibitions and further museum interpretation have yet to be employed
in the overall interpretation of the Iron Age Phoenician shipwreck site. With the
implementation of these interpretation methods, the success of the project will
surely increase. As of now, with the limited interpretation, it is difficult to determine
whether or not this project has been a success in terms of public awareness. The
primary limiting factor at this point is the fact that very little has been done to teach
the public about the importance of both the history and the scientific excavation
within Spanish waters.
Future interpretation in the ARQUA museum that will utilize the finds of the
excavation will surely provide both the museum and the public with a better
understanding of an underwater archaeological investigation. If some of the
interpretation tactics are utilized from the case studies, the overall message that
archaeology is favoured over treasure hunting will surely be clearer within the walls
of the ARQUA museum. It has yet to be determined how the ARQUA museum will
utilize the finds of the excavation; however, with the current methods in place at the
101
ARQUA museum, any additional exhibit material added will only benefit the public
understanding of the Bajo de la Campana excavation.
Future work could be utilized to better understand what exhibits give the
visitors a better understanding of archaeological research and how they can be
improved upon. Further research into additional case studies could also provide
additional methods that have not been mentioned. Some of these may include the
implementation of videos, games and social networks to expand the audience to an
international level. The implementation of these tactics will become vital in the
future of maritime archaeological excavations; because these methods can reach
greater audiences and will in return create a greater interest in the field. Since
culture and technology is constantly changing and improving, it will be important
for archaeologists to keep up with the changes and implement them into their
projects. One method that has been explored very little is video gaming. With the
large number of people around the world who own or play video games, there is
surely great potential for education about maritime archaeology while still having
fun. As Andrew Gardner (2007: 255-257) explains, many video games that have
been created have not accurately portrayed the past and emphasize the clichés
common in modern cultures. While many famous games have made some attempt to
teach about the past, many details and accuracies have been disregarded as to not
hinder the success of the game (Gardner 2007: 256). Video gaming is surely one
avenue of public interpretation to be explored in the future. If game designers and
archaeologists work together, a game could be created that is both fun and
educational.
Another area for future research could be the implementation of surveys or
questionnaires to visitors of the museum, similar to the Australian museum analysis
conducted by former graduate student Peta Knott (2006: 23–28). These surveys
would question visitors about their museum experience, and what they expected
but did not receive in their visit. This survey could provide additional information
about how the exhibits could improve and is required in order to make the
experience more enlightening and educational. These surveys could also provide
102
statistical data as in the case with Gail Vander Stoep’s (2005: 327–328) study of
museums in Michigan that incorporated three audiences for her survey.
Conclusions and Final Thoughts
This thesis has demonstrated that public interpretation is a vital component
of any archaeological investigation after the excavation has been conducted. It is
important for scientific archaeological projects to relay the message that treasure
hunting is detrimental to our understanding of history and its significance within
modern cultures. As more research becomes available on the interpretation
methods utilized by archaeological investigations, it will be clearer what methods
are the most valuable for teaching the public about the history and the importance
of the finds.
103
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
While there are so many people I would like to thank for making this thesis
possible, I must first give my gratitude to my thesis advisor Dr Wendy van
Duivenvoorde. Without your help and patience this thesis would not be possible. I
would also like to thank you for the opportunity you provided and giving me the
chance to do something special. I of course also must thank doctoral candidate Mark
Polzer for providing me the opportunity to join his project and research. I was able
to learn so much from the excavation and the dedication that you have to your
research.
I would also like to thank the Flinders University staff and students for their
support and help in producing my thesis. A special thanks to John Naumann is
necessary, because without him I would have never been able to participate in this
project. I would also like to thank him for his hospitality and making South Australia
a home away from home.
I would like to thank the Spanish researchers and archaeologists for their
keen sense of humour and their patience in helping me with my Spanish. Memories
were made and a dedication to the field was created from your attitude and your
willingness to help. I would also like to thank Juan Pinedo Reyes for his knowledge
of Spanish maritime archaeology and his dedication to the field research. Thank you
for your humour and day-to-day revelations regarding our research. I would also
like to thank the staff of the ARQUA museum for their permission and support in
studying their museum.
I would like to thank Sarah Nahabedian for her constant love and support
helping me to finish this thesis. I must also thank my family for their love and
support along the way to reaching my goals.
Finally I would like to thank my mother Jessica for making this thesis
possible and supporting me through the thick and the thin. Thank you for
everything.
104
Bibliography
Altamira, Rafael
1930 A History of Spanish Civilization. Constable, London.
Albright, William
1941 New Light on the Early History of Phoenician Colonization. Bulletin of
American Schools of Oriental Research 83(1):14–21.
Archaeological Institute of America
2012 The Ancient Coast of Turkey & The Agean Sea Islands, Aboard the 17–
Cabin Yacht Castillo, Electronic document,
http://www.archaeological.org/tours/asia/3754, accessed August 15, 2012.
Archaeology News Network
2012 Ancient Cypriot Ship's SOS Call. Electronic document,
http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2012/05/ancient–cypriot–
ships–sos.html#.UEj–SdCUQ1d, accessed August 24, 2012.
Arnold, Barto
1996 The Texas Historical Commission's Underwater Archaeological Survey
of 1995 and the Preliminary Report on the Belle, La Salle's Shipwreck of
1686. Historical Archaeology 30(4):66–87.
Aruz, Joan, Kim Benzel and Jean Evans
2008 Beyond Babylon : Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium
B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art ; Yale University Press, New York, NY; New
Haven, CT.
Aubet, Maria
2001 The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. 2nd ed.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
Bass, George F.
1986 A Bronze Age Shipwreck at Ulu Burun: 1984 Campaign. American
Journal of Archaeology 90(3):269–296.
Bass, George F.
1996 Uluburun. In Shipwrecks in the Bodrum Museum of Underwater
Archaeology, edited by George F. Bass, pp. 60–78. Bodrum Museum of
Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey.
Berry, Nancy, Susan Mayer and National Art Education Association.
1989 Museum Education: History, Theory, and Practice. National Art
Education Association, Reston, VA.
105
Bruseth, James and Toni Turner
2005 From a Watery Grave: The Discovery and Excavation of La Salle's
Shipwreck, La Belle. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX.
Cariolou, Glafkos
2012 The Kyrenia Ship Project. Electronic document,
http://www.kyreniaship.org/text1/english%20text/englishindex.htm.
Castro, Filipe V., de
2003 The Pepper Wreck, an Early 17th-Century Portuguese Indiaman at the
Mouth of the Tagus River, Portugal. The International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology 32(1):6–23.
Castro, Filipe V., de
2005 The Pepper Wreck. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Tx.
Castro, Filipe V., de
2007 The Pepper Wreck Project. Texas A&M Department of Anthropology,
College Station, TX. http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/indexPepperWreck.htm
Cypnet
2012 Kyrenia Shipwreck Museum. Electronic document,
http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/city/kyrenia/castle/shipwreck/index.ht
ml, accessed August 14, 2012.
Cyprus News Agency
2004 Kyrenia Freedom Sets Sail, Electronic document,
http://news.pseka.net/index.php?module=article&id=5013, accessed August
19, 2012.
Dean, David
1994 Museum Exhibition: Theory and Practice. Routledge New York, New
York.
Gardner, Andrew
2007 The Past as Playground: The Ancient World in Video Game
Representation, in Archaeology and the Media, edited by Timothy Clack and
Marcus Brittain, pp. 255-274. Volume 1. Walnut Creek, CA.
Hall, Rebecca, Andrew Hall and Barto Arnold III
1997 Presenting Archaeology on the Web: The La Salle Shipwreck Project.
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 26(3): 247–251.
106
Hamilton, Donny
2006 La Belle, Louis XIV's Flag Ship: Excavation, Conservation, Display, in
Colloquium: To Sea or Not to Sea—2nd International Colloquium on Maritime
and Fluvial Archaeology, edited by Marnix Pieters, Glen Gevaert, Jan Mees and
Jan Seys, pp. 2–3. Volume 1. Brugges.
The History Blog
2012 Giant Freeze Dryer to Preserve Famous Shipwreck. Vol. 2012.
WorldPress.
Institute of Nautical Archaeology
2008 Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millenium B.C..
Electronic document,
http://www.inadiscover.com/projects/all/southern_europe_mediterranean_
aegean/uluburun_turkey/further_reading_links/, accessed August 23, 2012.
Katzev, Michael
1978 Cyrpus Underwater Archaeological Search 1969, in National
Geographic SocietyResearch Reports: Abstracts and Reviews of Research and
Exploration Authorized Under Grants from the National Geographic Society
During the Year 1969, edited by Paul Oehser and John Lea, pp. 289–305. Vol.
1. Washington, D.C..
Katzev, Michael
1990 An Analysis of the Experimental Voyages of KYRENIA II, in Proceedings
of the Tropis II 2nd International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity,
edited by Harry Tzales, pp. 245–256. Volume 2. Delphi, Greece.
Katzev, Michael and Susan Katzev
1985 Kyrenia II: Building a Replica of an Ancient Greek Merchantman, in
Proceedings of the Tropis I 1st International Symposium on Ship Construction
in Antiquity, edited by Harry Tzales, pp. 163–176. Volume 1. Piraeus.
Katzev, Susan
2008 The Kyrenia Ship: Her Recent Journey. Near Eastern Archaeology 71(1–
2):76.
Kenderdine, Sarah
1997 Culture and Heritage: Shipwrecks and Associated Objects. Australia:
State of the Environment Technical Paper Series (Natural and Cultural),
Department of the Environment, Canberra.
107
Knott, Peta
2006 How are Shipwrecks Represented in Australian Museums? The
Investigation of Museum Workers, Exhibitions and Visitors. Graduate Diploma
thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia. Electronic Thesis
Collection.
The Kyrenia Ship Project
2000 Kyrenia II, Kyrenia III and Kerynia Liberty. Electronic document,
http://www.kyreniaship.org/text1/english%20text/shipproject_e/THE%20
K–L–PROJECT–INTRO.htm#welcomonkl, accessed August 3, 2012.
Falk, John
2009 Identity and the Museum Visitor Experience. Left Coast Press, California.
Fagan, Brian
2001 Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of
Past Civilizations. Thames & Hudson, USA.
Flatman, Joe
2003 Cultural Biographies, Cognitive Landscapes and Dirty Old Bits of Boat :
'Theory' in Maritime Archaeology. International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology 32(2): 143–157.
Frey, Lawrence
1994 The Naturalistic Paradigm: Studying Small Groups in the Postmodern
Era. Small Group Research 25(4):551–577.
Grant , Barbara and Lynne Giddings
2002 Making Sense of Methodologies: A Paradigm Framework for the Novice
Researcher. Contemporary Nurse 13(1):10–28.
Grieco, Glenn
2000 Modeling La Belle, Ship Model Shop Report. Electronic document,
http://nautarch.tamu.edu/CRL/Report9/index.htm, accessed August 28,
2012.
Grieco, Glenn
2003 Modeling La Belle: A Reconstruction of a Seventeenth-Century Light
Frigate. Masters Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tx. Electronic
Thesis Collection.
Makkas Winery
2012 Our wines. Electronic document,
http://www.makkaswinery.com.cy/wines_en.aspx, accessed September 22,
2012.
108
Manning, Sturt, Cemal Pulak, Bernd Kromer, Sahra Taiamo, Christopher Ramsey and
Michael Dee
2009 Absolute Age of the Uluburun Shipwreck: A Key Late Bronze Age Time–
Capsule for the East Mediterranean. In Tree-rings, Kings, and Old World
Archaeology and Environment, edited by Sturt Manning and Mary Bruce, pp.
163–188. Oxbow Books, Oxford.
Marciniec, Tony
2009 Uluburun Ship Wreck Hall. Electronic document, http://www.bodrum–
museum.com/museum/depts/uluburun.htm, accessed March 24, 2012.
McManamon, Francis
2000 Archaeological Messages and Messengers. Public Archaeology 1(1):5–
20.
Mederros Martín, Alfredo and Luis Alberto Ruiz Cabrero
2004 El Pecio Fenicio del Bajo de la Campana (Murcia, Espana) y el Comercio
del Marfil Norteafricano. Zephyrus: Revista de Prehistorieta y Archaeologia
57(1): 263–281.
Moity, Muriel, Murielle Rudel and Alain Xavier Wurst
2003 Master Seafarers: The Phoenicians and the Greeks. Encyclopaedia of
Underwater Archaeology 2. Periplus, London.
Modiano, Mario
1986 Greek Ship Replica Sails to US. Times Newspaper Limited, 7 June
London.
Naval History and Heritage Command
2005 Title XIV Sunken Military Craft Act. Preceedings of the Ronald W. Reagan
National Defence Authorization Act 2005. Section 1401– 1408.
Oldale, David
2008 The Oldest Shipwreck in the World, Electronic document,
http://www.holiday–diver.com/Issue.9–Wrecks–Uluburun.Wreck–
Kas.Turkey.html, accessed August 10, 2012.
Pappa, Eleftheria
2008 Reflections on the Earliest Phoenician Pressence in North West Africa.
Talanta 40(1):53–72.
Parkman, Francis
1963 The Discovery of the Great West, La Salle. 4th ed. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston Inc.
109
Patterson, Thomas
1989 History and the Post-Processual Archaeologies. Man 24(4):555.
Polzer, Mark
2012 Iron Age Phoenician Shipwreck Excavation at Bajo de la Campana,
Spain: Preliminary Report from the Field. In In Between Continents:
Proceedings of the Twelfth International Syposium on Boat and Ship
Archaeology, edited by Nergis Günsenin, in press. Oxford Books, Oxford.
Polzer, Mark and Juan Reyes
2011 The Final Season of the Claude and Barbara Duthuit Expedition to the
Bajo de la Campana, Spain Excavation of a Late Seventh–Century B.C.E.
Phoenician Shipwreck. The INA Annual 4:6–17.
Polzer, Mark and Juan Reyes
2009 Bajo de la Campana 2009 Phoenician Shipwreck Excavation. The INA
Annual 3:3–13.
Polzer, Mark and Juan Reyes
2008 Phoenician Rising: Excavation of the Bajo de la Campana Site Begins.
The INA Annual 2:5–10.
Polzer, Mark and Juan Reyes
2007 Phoenicians in the West. The INA Annual 1: 57–61.
Portuguese Navy
2004 Museu De Marinha. Vol. 2012. Portuguese Navy, Lisbon, Portugal.
Pulak, Cemal M.
1997 The Uluburun Shipwreck. Paper presented at the International
Symposium 'Cities on the Sea—Past and Present', Nicosia, Cyprus.
Pulak, Cemal M.
1998 The Uluburun Shipwreck: An Overview. The International Journal of
Nautical Archaeology 27(3):188–224.
Pulak, Cemal M.
2008 The Uluburun Shipwreck and Late Bronze Age Trade. In Beyond
Babylon : Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C, edited by
Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, Jean Evans and Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 290–
386. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Yale University Press, New York, NY
New Haven, CT.
110
Roldán Bernal, Blanca, Miguel Martín Camino and Angeles Pérez Bonet
1995 El Yacimiento Submarino del Bajo de la Campana (Cartagena, Murcia):
Catálogo y Estudio de los Materiales Arqueológicos. Cuadernos de
Arqueología Marítima 3: 11–61.
Scott-Ireton, Della
2004 The Value of Public Education and Interpretation in Submerged
Cultural Resource Management. In Out of the Blue, edited by John Jameson
and Della Scott-Ireton, pp.19–33. Springer New York, New York.
Scott-Ireton, Della and John Jameson
2004 Introduction: Imparting Values / Making Connections. In Out of the
Blue, edited by John Jameson and Della Scott-Ireton, pp. 1–7. Springer New
York, New York.
Shanks, Michael
2008 Post Processual Archaeology and After. In Handbook of Archaeological
Theories, edited by Alexander Bently, Herbert Maschner and Christopher
Chippindale, pp. 130–144. Altamira Press, Lanham, MD; New York, NY;
Toronto; Plymouth.
Shanks, Michael and Ian Hodder
1998 Processual, Postprocessual and Interpretive Archaeologies. In Reader in
Archaeological Theory: Post-Processual and Cognitive Approaches, edited by
David Whitley, pp. 69–95. Routledge, London, UK; New York, NY.
Sherratt, Susan
2010 Greeks and Phoenicians: Perceptions of Trade and Traders in the Early
First Millennium B.C. In Social Archaeologies of Trade and Exchange:
Exploring Relationships Among People, Places, and Things, edited by
Alexander Bauer and Anna Agbe-Davies, pp. 119–142. Left Coast Press,
Walnut Creek, CA.
Souter, Corioli
2006 Cultural Tourism and Diver Education. In Maritime Archaeology:
Australian Approaches, edited by Mark Staniforth and Mike Nash, pp. 163–
176. New York, NY.
Steffy, J. Richard
1985 The Kyrenia Ship: An Interim Report on its Hull Construction. American
Journal of Archaeology 89(1): 71–101.
Texas A&M Department of Anthropology
2008 The Pepper Wreck Project. Electronic document,
http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/index–PepperWreck.htm, accessed
August 12, 2012.
111
Texas Beyond History
2008 La Belle Shipwreck. Electronic document,
http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/belle/credits.html, accessed March 22,
2012. Texas Beyond History Austin, TX.
Texas Parks and Wildlife
2001 The La Salle Expedition. Electronic document,
http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/learning/webcasts/texas/lasalle.phtml,
accessed August 19, 2012.
The Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
2010 History. Electronic document, http://www.bodrum–
museum.com/museum/about.htm, accessed June 21, 2012.
The Maritime Executive
2012 Historic Shipwreck to be Freeze Dried & Rebuilt. 15 August. Fort
Lauderdale, Florida.
Turkish Daily News
2006 Replica of 3,300-Year-Old Shipwreck Arrives in Bodrum. Bodrum,
Turkey.
Turkish Daily News
2008 Exhibition Beyond Babylon. Istanbul, Turkey.
University of Texas
2007 Phoenician Trade. Electronic Document,
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/greeksahoy!/maps.html, accessed August
15, 2012.
Vander Stoep, Gail
2005 Museum Visitors' Perspectives on and Prefferred Experiences for
Heritage Tourism. Proceedings of the Northeastern Recreation Research
Symposium 17:326–337. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research
Station, Cooperstown, NY.
Van Pool, Christine
1999 The Scientific Nature of Postprocessualism. American Antiquity
64(1):33–53.
Varinlioglu, Guzden
2006 Experimental Archaeology: Kaş Underwater Archaeopark Project and
Underwater Research Methodologies. Electronic document,
http://sadsaag.org/content/docs/soma08.pdf, accessed August 13, 2012.
112
Vasquez, Ana
2009 El Barco de Uluburun, Causas y Consequencias. Electronic Document,
http://www.bloganavazquez.com/2009/12/19/el–barco–de–uluburum–
causa–y–consecuencia/, accessed August 12, 2012.
Wells, Audrey
2008 Virtual Nau. Electronic document,
http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/Index–virtualnau.htm, accessed August
22, 2012.
113