Download Stress and coping for adolescents

Running head: STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE
Stress and coping for adolescents
John Smith
James Cook University
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Stress and coping for adolescents
The biological, psychological and social effects of stress on an individual have been
researched extensively over time. Only recently has literature begun to focus on the influence
stress has on young people during the vulnerable stage of adolescence. Cognitive and
emotional attributes play a critical role in the types of coping strategies one chooses to adopt,
thus how adolescents cope cannot be limited to one sole strategy, but is a combination of
many. This paper will specifically focus on the types of life stressors young people encounter
and the coping strategies they implement. Also to be examined is how adolescent stressors
and coping strategies differ to that of adults. Through review of relevant coping literature, the
notion of coping as a dynamic process will be emphasised.
Adolescence, stress and coping
Adolescence is the transition between childhood and young adulthood during which
young people experience physiological, cognitive and social changes (Dumont & Provost,
1999; Murberg & Bru, 2004). The age bracket for adolescence varies according to different
literature (de Anda et al., 2000; Spirito, Stark, Grace and Stamoulis, 1991) however this
paper defines adolescents as between 12 and 19 years of age. Williams and McGillicuddy-De
Lisi (1999) suggest that during this transition, young people have difficulty adjusting and
often struggle with unfamiliar issues.
Stress is a concept that cannot be explained using a static definition thus it is
important to be aware that different descriptions exist in both recent and seminal literature.
Delahaij, Dam, Gaillard and Soeters (2011) explain stress using a biopsychosocial approach,
suggesting that stressful reactions affect the emotional, physiological and cognitive state of
an individual. This definition describes stress as a reaction. Alternatively, Caltabiano,
Sarafino and Byrne (2008) view stress as a discrepancy. They state that stress occurs when
there is a perceived discrepancy between the demands of a situation and an individual’s
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resources available to deal with that demand (Caltabiano et al., 2008). Greater discrepancy
between resources and demand therefore causes a greater stressful reaction (Caltabiano et al.,
2008). The act of handling this response is referred to as coping.
Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen and Wadsworth (2001) suggest that
coping focuses on achieving goals to resolve the stressful situation and minimise emotional
reaction. Similarly, Delahaij et al. (2011) describes coping as a relationship between
cognitive and behavioural processes that attempts to lessen the resources/demand
discrepancy. Coping strategies are labeled as either of two major types. These include
emotion-focused and problem-focused coping (Delahaij et al., 2011; Dumont & Provost,
1999; Fromme and Rivet, 1994; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000) Emotion-focused coping involves
regulating emotional response to a stressor and reducing psychological discomfort, whilst
problem-focused coping includes altering the situation to minimise or eliminate the source of
the stressor (Dumont & Provost, 1999; Fromme & Rivet, 1994).
The type of strategy a young person utilises depends largely on perceived control
(Spirito et al., 1991). Problem-focused strategies are used if a solution to the problem is
considered within the individual’s capabilities, whilst emotion-focused strategies are used if
the situation is perceived to be out of the individual’s control (Spirito et al., 1991). Despite
this distinction it is important to recognise that coping is a dynamic process that often
involves a combination of both strategies, depending on the nature of the stressful
circumstances (Caltabiano et al., 2008; Delahaij et al., 2011; Herman-Stahl, Stemmler &
Peterson, 1995; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000; Williams & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999; Yahav &
Cohen, 2008).
Adolescent stressors
The effect of daily stressors can be particularly harmful to the psychological and
physiological wellbeing of young people (Yahav & Cohen, 2008). The stressors adolescents
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experience range from the school environment to home and family life, and extend as far as
global social issues (de Anda et al., 2000). Spirito et al. (1991) identified four main stressful
domains in their research on young people - school, siblings, parents and friends. Increasing
academic pressure, sibling and parental conflict, peer pressure and romantic relationship
problems were the main issues children encountered daily (Spirito et al., 1991). This data was
based on a sample of adolescents aged 12-13 years, thus it is possible the stressors could
differ to those encountered by an older sample. The article is also relatively dated therefore it
is possible that the types of stressors prevalent today have changed.
In concurrence with the article by Spirito et al. (1991) however, de Anda et al. (2000)
also identified school as a major stressor for adolescents. Pressure surrounding future goals
was reported as most stressing, with personal expectations, academic performance and
homework also significant anxiety provoking situations. (de Anda et al., 2000). de Anda et
al.’s (2000) list of adolescent stressors is extensive and included issues unrelated to school
such as body image, social issues, relationships, violence and death. The age range for this
sample was 15-18 years of age, which suggests that older adolescents have less egocentrism
and greater concern for issues outside of the personal domain of school and home.
Persike and Seiffge-Krenke (2012) conducted a multicultural analysis of adolescent
stressors and found that academic achievement and parental control were of most concern,
whilst anxiety about peers and relationships was less than expected. Similar to de Anda et al.
(2000) and Spirito et al. (1991), Persike and Seiffge-Krenke (2012) suggest that adolescents
are increasingly concerned about school, future employment and further education.
Comparisons of these studies indicate that time has not significantly altered the types of
stressors adolescents experience.
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Coping with stress
Stress and coping literature identify an extensive range of coping strategies that young
people adopt (de Anda et al., 2000; Moskowitz, Stein & Lightfoot, 2013; Skinner & ZimmerGembeck, 2006; Williams & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). Some examples of emotionfocused coping include relaxation, distraction, escape, helplessness and withdrawal
(Caltabiano et al., 2008; de Anda et al., 2000; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006). Examples
of problem-focused coping include problem-solving and support-seeking (Skinner &
Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006).
An individual’s ability to handle stress is determined by the relationship between
personal attributes such as cognitive, emotional and behavioural development (Delahaij et al.,
2011; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006). The highly influential work of Lazarus (1966) as
cited by Folkman, Tedlie and Moskowitz (2004), emphasised the role of cognitive
interpretation in both stress perception and coping. Folkman et al. (2004) suggests that how
an individual appraises a situation determines the level of stress experienced. Williams and
McGillicuddy-De Lisi’s (1999) study on stress also focuses on the role of cognitive
development in appraisal and coping. Results indicated that due to having a wider coping
repertoire, older adolescents utilised more adaptive strategies than those younger (Williams
& McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). This suggests that experience with stress prepares
adolescents for certain problems, thus allowing the individual to cope adaptively (Williams &
McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). It is important to note however that the data was gathered over
a short time and from a sample of predominantly white, middle-class students. This allows
little room for generalisation to the wider population, however effectively demonstrates the
role of cognition in stress coping.
Visconti, Sechler and Kochenderfer-Ladd (2013) suggest that emotional attributes
such as self-esteem are what influence the coping strategies individuals utilise. Visconti et al.
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(2013) hypothesised that children with low self-esteem would lack the confidence to deal
with life stressors independently, thus were likely to engage in emotion-focused coping.
Unfortunately this hypothesis was unsupported. Dumont and Provost’s (1999) study of
adolescent coping however supports the relationship between low self-esteem and unhealthy
coping strategies. The results demonstrate a negative correlation between avoidant coping
and self-esteem levels, indicating that those lacking positive coping methods also lack
healthy self-esteem (Dumont & Provost, 1999). It is unknown however, whether this
correlation is bidirectional. Despite these limitations, results suggest that those that think
highly of themselves will be more capable and confident to handle problems in a positive
manner (Dumont & Provost, 1999).
During the stressful transition of adolescence, young people are at risk of engaging in
dangerous behaviour such as alcohol and drug use, as an attempt to deal with increased stress
levels (Rose & Bond, 2008). Caltabiano et al. (2008) support this notion and indicate that
older adolescents are more likely to engage in these types of maladaptive emotion-focused
coping. Rose and Bond (2008) also suggest that adolescents lacking healthy coping skills and
exposed to stressful environments are at a higher risk of substance abuse. This study however
emphasises that cognitive appraisal and perception of the stressful situation is what
determines the level of risk (Rose & Bond, 2008). Conversely, Fromme and Rivet (1994)
contend that an adolescent’s coping repertoire is what determines the likelihood of using
destructive behaviour to cope. This study argues that young people that lack any form of
coping strategies, regardless of maladaptive or adaptive nature, have a greater likelihood of
using substance abuse to cope with stress (Fromme & Rivet, 1994). This research emphasizes
the importance of promoting healthy coping skills in young people.
de Anda et al.’s (2000) research on adolescents disagrees with Fromme and Rivet
(1994), and Rose and Bond (2008). This study found that very few respondents of the
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adolescent sample reported using drugs and alcohol as a coping strategy. The results however
failed to identify a coping method with a frequency higher than moderate. Despite this
limitation, adolescents reported using adaptive coping methods most often, with reading a
book, watching television or listening to music scoring the highest on frequency and
effectiveness (de Anda et al., 2000). These findings indicate that not all young people turn to
dangerous behaviour to cope with life stressors.
Adults and adolescents
Sources of stress for adults differ by extremity to those of adolescents, however the
coping mechanisms used to deal with these problems are relatively similar. Whilst major
stressors for young people include school, family and peer relationships (de Anda et al.,
2000), adults experience problems such as job insecurity or loss, financial problems and
family issues like separation or divorce (Caltabiano et al., 2008; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000).
How individuals handle these stressful circumstances largely depends on knowledge
and experience, as well as how the event is perceived. Dumont and Provost (1999) suggest
that adults and adolescents perceive the severity of problems differently. Younger people are
likely to be frustrated by frequent daily problems whilst adults are capable of differentiating
between minor stressors which can be resolved easily, and major stressors which require
more attention (Dumont & Provost, 1999). Fromme and Rivet (1994) argue however that like
adolescents, adults with unhealthy coping skills often turn to avoidant strategies such as
alcohol to handle stress. Thus it is clear that, how adults and adolescents cope with stress
does not differ in the type of coping strategies, but rather is determined by the nature of an
individual’s coping skills. Those with an unhealthy coping repertoire will struggle to deal
with stressful situations, regardless of age (Fromme & Rivet, 1994).
Conclusion
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Adolescence is a transitional period of major physical and emotional change that can
result in significant psychological stress for young people. A combination of situations such
as school, academic pressure, anxiety about the future and family/peer relationships play a
role in creating angst for adolescents. The type of coping strategies individuals use is highly
dependent on cognitive and emotional development. Adaptive coping often leads to
emotionally healthy individuals, whereas maladaptive coping can lead to destructive
behaviour such as substance abuse. The main point emphasised throughout the paper is that
how individuals cope with certain life stressors is a dynamic, fluctuating relationship between
different components. In order to examine this relationship further, further research focusing
on adolescents and stress is encouraged.
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