Download opposition in english and arabicايناس

94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
OPPOSITION IN ENGLISH AND
ARABIC
A CONTRASTIVE STUDY
Lecturer Dr. Enas Naji Al-Mussawi
University of Wasit- College of Education
Department of English
Abstract
Elements of the sentence completes each other as in a chain
in which every connected parts closely completes the other.
Sometimes the main elements of the sentences such as nouns ,
verbs , adjective and adverbs may not be convenient in the
sentence. They might need other parts to complete and clarify their
meanings .One example of such elements of clarification is the
apposition which refers to nouns or pronouns placed beside other
nouns to identify or describe it. This research deals with the
appositives , appositive phrases and clauses , the types of apposition
and their application in both English and Arabic languages.
1- Opposition in English Language
1-1 Definition of Apposition
Apposition is defined by Crystal (1985:20) as "a traditional
term retained in some models of GRAMMATICAL description for
a sequence of units which are CONSTITUENTS at the same
grammatical LEVEL , and which have an identity or similarity of
REFERENCE". This definition presents two ideas including
'CONSTITUENS' and 'LEVELS'. The first one is closely associated
13
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
with the type of units including nouns and pronouns and the second
one is closely associated with the level in which these units are
used. Similarity of the grammatical level identifies clearly that what
will come after a nouns and pronoun will be an apposition. Hartman
and Stork (1972 : 17 ) give another definition which is " A word or
phrase modifying a preceding noun phrase or clause". So , this
definition stands for a preceding noun or noun phrase and considers
the appositives as modifiers.
1-2-Appositives
An appositive may be a single word. Many appositives in English
are single-word appositives.
1-My dog, Spot, is a great watchdog.
2-Kevin's
niece
Julie
went
alone
to
the
prom.
3-Qatana's two dogs, a spaniel and a collie, ran away last night.
(An appositive can be compound, as in this example.)
The term 'Appositive' comes from the Latin verb meaning "to put
near or next to". It refers to the word(s) which follow a noun ,
rename it or describe it in another way. The appositive, usually,
immediately follows another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The
noun or pronoun preceding the appositive, i.e., the appositive's
referent, or the word to which the appositive refers, is called the
'antecedent'. The appositive is said to be in apposition to its
antecedent, or preceding, noun or pronoun (muslowords, 2009).
4- Your friend Bill is in trouble.
In this example the noun is 'friend' which is the antecedent, and
the appositive is 'Bill'. It is clearly identified that the antecedent has
the same grammatical function of its appositive as is shown in the
example below :
14
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
5-The altitude of Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, is over 12,000 feet.
6-The altitude of the capital of Tibet, Lhasa, is over 12,000 feet.
7- The altitude of Lhasa is over 12,000 feet.
8-The altitude of the capital of Tibet is over 12,000 feet.
This example shows that appositives can always be exchanged
with the nouns they modify. In short, then, appositives are not
considered modifiers of nouns and pronouns (as, for example, are
adjectives). Instead, appositives become an integral part of the
antecedent, essentially identical in function. (eslbee.com, 2009) .
An appositive is an interjection into a sentence. In other
words, this part of the sentence may provide clarification ,yet , the
thought expressed by the sentence can stand fully on its own
without the appositive. As is shown in the following example:
9-She, my sister, is always late.
10-She is always late.
In the preceding example 'my sister' is the appositive of the
antecedent ' she' and hence it presented useful information of who is
the girl who is always late. Yet, this appositive can be omitted
without changing its meaning ( Praninskas , 1959 : 50).
1-3 Appositive Phrases and Clauses
Adams (1973: 34) states that a word, a phrase, or a clause
modifying an appositive will be adjectival. The appositive is
formed of a noun or a pronoun modified by either a single-word
adjective or an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause. Hence,
appositive phrases and clauses consist of the appositive itself
(always a noun or pronoun) together with its modifiers as is seen in
the examples below:
11- Richard Burton, explorer, discovered the source of the Nile .
12- Richard Burton , the celebrated explorer, discovered the
source of the Nile .
15
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
13-Richard Burton, the celebrated explorer who discovered the
source of the Nile, was a man of many talents.
In the first example the word " explorer' is an appositive of the
antecedent 'Richard Burton ' , while in the second example
'explorer' , the appositive, is modified by the past participle
'celebrated', which functions as a single-word adjective. The
highlighted text is called an appositive phrase ). In the third
example the appositive is modified by the adjective clause 'who
discovered the source of the Nile’. The highlighted text is called an
appositive clause. Therefore, English sentences can be injected with
appositive phrases and clauses.
Appositive phrases defined in perfectyourenglish.com (2006)
as "nouns or pronouns with modifiers. They provide additional
information and description to the sentence". Like all solitary
appositives, appositive phrases preceded by the noun or pronoun
they describe. For example:
14- Paradise Lost, the great epic poem in English, was written by
Milton. (Ibid. )
An appositive phrase is a type of noun phrase that follows
the noun or pronoun it modifies and amplifies or restricts its
meaning (The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc..2001).
1-4 The Grammatical Level of the Opposition
Grammarians have considered apposition as a kind of relation
which existed among the units higher than the phrase. However,
they state that it is to be found for the most part in noun phrases.
Those noun phrases may have the following elements as heads.
a- Common noun
15-John, the leader, made the decision. (Robert, 1967: 249)
b- Proper noun
c- Personal pronoun
16
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
16-Melody, my horse, saw me from the corral. (McGraw,
1952:4)
d- Demonstrative
17-He's a complete idiot, that brother of yours.(Qurik etal, 1973;
279)
e- Indefinite
18--The house, an imposing building, dominated the street.
(ibid:281)
The other grammatical units which exist in the appositive relation
are the following:
a- Adj + Adj
b- Adv. p + Adv. p
c- Prep + Prep
From the syntactic view, these structures in the appositive relation
are either simple or complex. The head of the noun phrase may
stand alone or accompanied by other elements, such as determiners
and modifiers.
1-5 The pragmatical level of apposition
By using apposition the speaker adds a certain aspect of the
discourse, an aspect which has great importance in the interchange
between the interlocutors. Pragmatically, the apposition (the second
element) is generally an explanation of the first element. It usually
adds information that the speaker or narrator considers necessary to
clarify what they previously expounded. In some cases apposition a
voids possible ambiguity. E. Koktov's words (1985: 40-41)
summarize some psychological properties of apposition. "From a
psychological viewpoint, apposition should be viewed as the
speaker's commentary, as an after thought, as an implicit
predication, or as a secondary information, as a message which
deflects from the mainstream of communication and which should
17
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
be kept distinct from the proper assertion (main information) of a
sentence".
1-6 The semantic level of the apposition
There are many semantic classifications of the apposition made
by Quirk etal. (1973: 278- 282) . The semantic classes for the
apposition relation are the following:
a- appellation
b- designate
c- identification
d- reformulation
e- Inclusion
a-Appellation
With appellation, there is a unique reference between the two
appositives. Both appositive noun phrases are commonly definite
and the second is typically a proper noun.
19-The company commander, Captain Madison, assembled his
men and announced their mission. (Quirk etal. 1973: 278).
b- Designation
With designation, there is also unique reference, but the second
appositive is less specific than the first. Both appositives are
commonly definite noun phrases.
20-Captain Madison, the company commander, assembled his
men and announced their mission. (ibid: 279).
c- Identification
With identification, there is no unique equivalence. The second
appositive is more specific, identifying what is given in the first,
which is typically an indefinite noun phrase.
18
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
21-A company commander, Captain Madison, assembled his
men and announced their mission. (ibid: 279).
d- Reformulation
Reformulation is a rewording in the second appositive of the
content of the first. The reformulation is based on two types of
knowledge. If the reformulation is based on linguistic. Knowledge,
the second appositive is a synonymous expression.
22-Sounds units of the language, technically phonemes.
A synonymous word or phrase may replace the first formulation
in order to avoid misinterpretation or provide a more familiar or a
more technical term.
If the reformulation is based on knowledge about the external
world, the second appositive is a co-referential expression.
23-The United States of America, or America for short.
The reformulation may be a correction of what was said. The
correction may be due.
Sometimes the apposition involving linguistic reformulation
includes translations from foreign languages.
Savoir (know in English). (ibid: 280).
E- Inclusion
Inclusion applies to cases of apposition where the reference of the
first appositive is not identical with that of the second, but instead
includes it. There are two types of inclusion: exemplification and
particularization.
1- In exemplification, the second appositive exemplifies the more
general term in the first appositive
24-His excuses, say the breakdown of his car, never seemed
plausible.
19
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
2- In particularization requires an explicit indicator. Some of these
indicators are especially, particularly, in particular and mainly.
25-The children liked the animals, particularly the monkeys.
(Quirk etal, 1973: 282).
1-7 The phonological level of the apposition
Phonological features also mark nonrestrictive clauses
(apposition). Such clauses are accompanied by a drop in pitch and
preceded and followed by brief pauses. The intonation can also go
down, then up before each comma. These phonological features are
captured in writing by the use of commas, which set off the
nonrestrictive relative clause (apposition) from the main clause in
the sentence. (Murcia, 1999: 592)
26-The farmer, a lazy man, was poor.
The + farmer----a + lazy + man ---- was + poor--- (Sledd, 1959:
118).
1-8 Punctuation of appositives
The punctuation of the apposition is generally depends on the
apposition itself. In some cases, when the noun being explained is
too general with the appositive; the information is essential to the
meaning of the sentence. We do not place commas around the
appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and
complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place
on before and one after the appositive.
27-John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his
eloquent and inspirational speeches.(net –http: llowL. English
purdue. Edu.l).
Appositives are always separated from the body of the by
punctuation, usually commas, but sometimes – when greater
separation is desired – dashes are used.
20
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
28-"What next I bring shall please you, be assured, your
likeness, your fit help , yourself, your wish exactly to your
heart's desire." –Milton , P. L. Viii, 45(1)"http: llen.
Wikibooks- org /wiki/ English in use. "
1-9 Types of apposition
Apposition may be non-restrictive or restrictive. The main
features of these types of apposition are indicated in the following
points:
a- Non- restrictive apposition
The appositives in non-restrictive apposition are in different
information units, and the two appositives have different
information value, one of them being subordinate in the distribution
of information. In the non- restrictive appositive, the second
element parenthetically modifies the first without changing its
scope. Non- restrictive appositives are not crucial to the meaning of
the sentence.
29-Mr. Campbell, the lawyer, was here last night.
The non-restrictive appositives must be preceded or set off by
commas (Qurik etal,1973; 276).
b- Restrictive apposition
In a restrictive appositive, the second element limits or clarifies
the foregoing one in some crucial way. For example:
30-My friend Alice is nice.
The word "Alice" specifies to which friend the speaker is referring
and is therefore restrictive.
Restrictive apposition is common with such general noun phrases
as the fact, the idea, the view…..etc.
31-I don't agree with the view that there is no advantage in
being patient.
21
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
And an important use of restrictive apposition is found with
citations and names of books, film, etc.
32-"The novel Crime and Punishment.." (Qurik, 1973: 283).
1-10 Apposition and Coordination
Crystal(1967: 68 ) argues that appositives are not clauses. At
deep-structure, they are coordinated to the matrix clause. Then
some transformations are applied and turned the clause into a
parenthetical, relative clause. Qurik etal. (1985: 130) state
"Apposition resembles coordination that not only do coordinate
constructions also involve the linking of units of the rank, but the
central coordinators and or may themselves occasionally be explicit
markers of apposition." Herndon (1976: 235) mentioned that there
is an appositive transformation. He defined it as a construction
which allows two noun phrases to stand side by side when the
constituent sentence is of the NP be NP type and the first NP of the
constituent sentence is identical to the matrix sentence NP.
1-11 The role of apposition in the discourse
Apposition just like the other structural devices play an important
function in the texts. It is created internal relations which may be
expressed by certain markers. These markers created two types of
internal appositive relations. These relations are exposition and
exemplification. They correspond; structurally, not to coordination
but to apposition. Among the items which occur frequently in this
function are , in the expository sense, I mean, that is, that is to say,
in other words, (or) to put it another way; in the exemplificatory
sense, for instance, for example, thus. Even the word "or" also
occurs alone as a marker of structural apposition, the sense being by
another (alternative) name (Halliday, 1976: 248).
22
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
a-Expository
33-I wonder whether that statement can be backed up by adequate
evidence. In other words, you don't believe me.
a- Exemplificatory
34-'What sort of things do you remember best' Alice ventured to
ask. 'Oh, things that happened the week after next', the Queen
replied in a careless tone '. for instance , now', she went on…
(Halliday, 1976: 248).
2-Opposition in Arabic
2-1 Introduction
The notion of Arabic sentence has received much attention in
Arabic grammar owing to its importance as an integral point on
which many aspects of grammatical construction depend. Every
Arabic sentence necessarily consists of two parts : a subject (‫)اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ‬
and a predicate (‫) اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ إﻟﯿﮫ‬.The predicate and the subject can take
the form of (‫ ( )اﻟﺨﺒﺮ‬predicate ) and (‫ ( )اﻟﻤﺒﺘﺪأ‬subject ) and what is
originally predicate and subject as:
1-(‫( )ﻋﻠﻲ ﯾﺮﻛﺾ‬Ali is running). (‫اﻟﺴﺎﻣﺮاﺋﻲ‬, 1998:5).
‫( اﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم‬1979: 491) holds that a sentence can result from the
combination of ‫( اﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬verb) and ‫( اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬subject) as for instance:
2-(‫ ( )رﻛﺾ ﻋﻠﻲ‬Ali ran )
Also they can have the form of (‫( )اﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬verb) and (‫( )اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬subject)
and/ or (‫( )ﻧﺎﺋﺐ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬subject substitute), or (‫( )اﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬the name of
the verb) as:
3-( ‫ ( ) ﻗﺘﻞ اﻟﺮﺟﻞ‬The man is killed )
4-( ‫ ( ) ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﺎﺋﻢ‬Ali is sleeping )
Nassar (1967: 190) illustrates that there are two types of
sentences in Arabic: dependent and independent. Dependent
sentences are those which have either predicate or subject implied.
23
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
Independent sentences have the two parts present. They have two
main types : nominal and verbal. The former usually begins with
nouns or qualities. The latter begins with verbs.
2-Oppositive or Substitution (‫)اﻟﺒﺪل‬in Arabic Language
‫( اﻟﺒﺪل‬permutitive) is one kind of the followers (‫ )ﺗﻮاﺑﻊ‬that are
used to coordinate between clauses in apposition to the (‫)اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻮع‬,that
which is followed (by some word in opposition. Thus the
complements which are coordinated with, or placed in opposition to
, the subject or predicate, are called by Arab grammarians (‫)اﻟﺘﻮاﺑﻊ‬,
followers or appositives, and the word to which they are placed in
apposition is called (‫)اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻮع‬, that which is followed. They are
generally connected with a noun, more rarely with a verb(‫ﺣﺴﻦ‬
,١٩٧٦:٤٣٤).
‫ اﻟﺒﺪل‬is always backward from the followed clause or
word(‫)اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ‬, and it follows the noun, and agrees with (‫)اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ‬
in respect of determination or indetermination, as well as of gender,
number, and case.‫ ( اﻷﻧﺼﺎري‬٢٠٠٥:٤٢٢)
has defined ‫ اﻟﺒﺪل‬as
substitution (‫)اﻟﻌﻮض‬, and some Arab grammarians called it as
translation (‫ )اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ‬or illustration (‫ )اﻟﺘﺒﯿﯿﻦ‬or repetition (‫()اﻟﺘﻜﺮار‬see:
‫ ﺣﺴﻦ‬,١٩٧٦:٦٦٣).
The purpose of using ‫ اﻟﺒﺪل‬in Arabic sentence is to reinforce and
clarify the previous judgment or saying and to remove any
suspicion or ambiguity from the hearer's mind (‫ ﺣﺴﻦ‬,١٩٧٦:٦٦٥).
‫(ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪ‬n.d:112-13)and ‫(ﺣﺴﻦ‬1976:665-71) state that ‫ اﻟﺒﺪل‬is of
four kinds:
A-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞ‬the substitution of the whole for the whole):in this
kind both parts of the clauses have the same and equal meaning as
in the following examples:
1-(٧-٦:‫( ﺻِﺮَاطَ اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ أَﻧْﻌَﻤْﺖَ ﻋَﻠَﯿْﮭِﻢْ() اﻟﻔﺎﺗﺤﺔ‬٦) َ‫) أھﺪﻧﺎ اﻟﺼﱢﺮَاطَ اﻟْﻤُﺴْﺘَﻘِﯿﻢ‬
24
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
B-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞ‬the substitution of the part for the whole) as in
the following example:
2- ‫( أﻛﻠﺖ اﻟﺮﻏﯿﻒ ﺛﻠﺜﮫ‬I ate the loaf, the third part of it)
C-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻻﺷﺘﻤﺎل‬the comprehensive substitution) which indicates a
quality or circumstance possessed by or included in the previous
substantive as in the following example:
3-‫اﻋﺠﺒﻨﻲ زﯾﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﮫ‬
D-(‫ اﻟﺒﺪل اﻟﻤﺒﺎﯾﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ)ﺑﺪل اﻟﻤﺒﺎﯾﻨﺔ‬: here the permutative (‫ )اﻟﻤﺒﺪل‬is
wholly different from the word which is substituted (‫)اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ‬.This
type is of three sorts:(‫ ﺣﺴﻦ‬,١٩٧٦:٦٧٠).
a- ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻐﻠﻂ‬the permutative of error)
b-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻨﺴﯿﺎن‬the permutative of forgetfulness)
The above subtypes may indicate the same meaning in which the
followed clause is uttered merely by mistake, and the correct word
is immediately substituted for it; as when one says:‫( ﻣﺮرت ﺑﻜﻠﺐ ﻓﺮس‬I
passed by a dog, (I meant to say) a horse)(ibid:670-1).
c- ‫(ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮاب‬the permutative of retractation) or ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﺪاء‬the
substitution of a new statement), here one would like to substitute
something for the original statement ; as, for example, when one
says : (‫ )أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰا‬I ate bread, but then, preferring to state that he had
eaten meat , adds the word (‫)أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰا ﻟﺤﻤﺎ( )ﻟﺤﻤﺎ‬.The ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮاب‬the
permutative of retractation) is equivalent to the use of the particle
(‫ )ﺑﻞ‬as (‫ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪ()أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰا ﺑﻞ ﻟﺤﻤﺎ‬,n.d:112-13).
while ‫( اﻷﻧﺼﺎري‬٢٠٠٥:٤٢٣ -٢٥) mentions six types of ‫اﻟﺒﺪل‬.
1-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞ‬the substitution of the whole for the whole)
2- ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞ‬the substitution of the part for the whole)
3-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻻﺷﺘﻤﺎل‬the comprehensive substitution)
4- ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮاب‬the permutative of retractation)
5- ‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻐﻠﻂ‬the permutative of error)
6-‫( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻨﺴﯿﺎن‬the permutative of forgetfulness)
25
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
Conclusions
The paper finds that there are a number of issues in common
between English and Arabic, represented in the fact that in both
languages opposition is used to coordinate between clauses in
apposition to the other word or clause. Moreover, opposition may
also be used to attract and focus the addressee's attention to the
intended action of certain verbal utterance.
However, there are a number of differences between the two
languages in question. In English, there is no need to focus on the
agreement between the appositive clauses while in Arabic language
there should be an agreement between the appositive clauses
according to the gender, number, and case. The other point of
difference is that in English there are two types of opposition,
restrictive and nonrestrictive, while in Arabic there are four main
types and three other subtypes. The last point of difference between
the two languages is that opposition in English language may be
used as a coordinator to link between the two clauses while in
Arabic opposition is merely used as a follower to the main clause in
order to pay the addressee's attention and to clarify the case to avoid
any suspicion in the hearer's mind
26
94 ‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ‬/ ‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ‬
Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi
References
1-English References
Crystal,D .(2003) .A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics . New
York :Blackwell Published Ltd .
Eckersley, C. E. & J.M. Eckersley. 1960 .A Comprehensive
English Grammar . London: Longman Group Limited.
Eslbee.com, (2009)
Halliday, M.A.K.(1976). Discourse Analysis. London : Edward
Arnold.
Hartman, and Stork, (1972)
Herndon, J.H. (1976). A survey of Modern Grammars. 2nd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Leech, G. and Svartik, J. (1975) A communicative grammar of
English. Singapore: Longman .
Muslowords, (2009) .
Murcia, C.M & Freeman,D.L. (1999). The Grammar Book.USA:
Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Nasar, T. Raja (1967). The structure of Arabic. From sound to
sentence. Librairie Du Liban. Riadsolh sequare, Beirut.
Praninskas , (1959)
Quirk, R.; and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A Concise Grammar of
Contemporary English. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,Inc.
Quirk, R.; and Greenbaum, S. (1991).A Student's Grammar of
the English Language. 3rd. ed.London: Longman.
Quirk, R.; S. Greenbaum; G. Leech; and J. Svartvik. (1972). A
Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman Group
Ltd.
Quirk, R. , S. Greenbaum; G. Leech, and J.Svartvik.(1985). A
Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London:
Longman Group Ltd.
27
‫ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ ‪ /‬ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ ‪94‬‬
‫‪Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi‬‬
‫‪Quirk R.and S. Greenmaum. (1983). A University Grammar of‬‬
‫‪English. London: Longman Group Ltd.‬‬
‫& ‪Roberts,P.(1967). Modern Grammar.USA: Harcourt, Brace‬‬
‫‪World Inc.‬‬
‫‪Sled, J. (1959) A short Introduction to English Grammar.‬‬
‫‪USA: Scott, Foresman and Company.‬‬
‫‪Shaw,H.and Shaffer, V.(1952). McGraw-Hill Handbook of‬‬
‫‪English. USA: McGraw-Hill book company, Inc.‬‬
‫‪Arabic References‬‬
‫أﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم‪ ،‬ﺟﻤﺎل اﻟﺪﯾﻦ )‪ (١٩٧٩‬ﻣﻐﻨﻲ اﻟﻠﺒﯿﺐ ﻋﻦ ﻛﺘﺐ اﻻﻋﺎرﯾﺐ‪ .‬ط‪ .٥‬ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ د‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎزن اﻟﻤﺒﺎرك‪ ،‬أﺣﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻤﺪ اﷲ وﻣﺮاﺟﻌﮫ ﺳﻌﯿﺪ اﻷﻓﻐﺎﻧﻲ‪ .‬دار اﻟﻔﻜﺮ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﺮوت‪.‬‬
‫اﻻﻧﺼﺎري‪،‬اﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم‪.(٢٠٠٥).‬ﺷﺮح ﻗﻄﺮ اﻟﻨﺪى وﺑﻞ اﻟﺼﺪى‪ .‬ﺗﺎﻟﯿﻒ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ‬
‫دار اﻻﻋﺘﺼﺎم ﻟﻠﻄﺒﺎﻋﺔ واﻟﻨﺸﺮ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻜﺮﺑﺎﺳﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺴﻦ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺎس )‪ (١٩٧٦‬اﻟﻨﺤﻮ اﻟﻮاﻓﻲ‪ ،‬ج‪ .٤‬دار اﻟﻤﻌﺎرف ﺑﻤﺼﺮ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺴﺎﻣﺮاﺋﻲ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﺿﻞ ﺻﺎﻟﺢ )‪ (١٩٩٨‬اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﺄﻟﯿﻔﮭﺎ وأﻗﺴﺎﻣﮭﺎ‪ .‬دار اﻟﻜﺘﺐ واﻟﻮﺛﺎﺋﻖ‬
‫ﺑﺒﻐﺪاد‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪ‪،‬ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻣﺤﻲ اﻟﺪﯾﻦ)ﺑﻼ ﺗﺄرﯾﺦ(‪.‬ﺷﺮح اﺑﻦ ﻋﻘﯿﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﯿﺔ اﺑﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ‪،‬ج‪.٣‬‬
‫ﺑﯿﺮوت‪:‬ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ اﻟﮭﺪاﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪28‬‬