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THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
CREATING A NATION AND A SOCIETY
NASH  JEFFREY
HOWE  FREDERICK DAVIS  WINKLER  MIRES  PESTANA
7th Edition
Chapter 11: Slavery and the Old South
Pearson Education, Inc, publishing as Longman © 2006
BUILDING A DIVERSE COTON
KINGDOM

Large plantation agriculture was dominant in the South but 75% of
southern landholders did not own slaves
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Cotton was the key cash crop but more acreage was planted in
corn
Older Upper South (Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and
Kentucky) grew different crops from those grown in “Black Belt”
South from South Carolina to eastern Texas
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Middling yeomen played a significant role
Most southerners lived in modest two-room cabins
Economies of flat coastal areas differed from those of Appalachian
highlands
Southern cities differed from rural areas
Slavery was paternalistic in older areas but became increasingly a
capitalistic enterprise aimed at maximizing profits
–
Tied into growing international web of economic relations
The Varied Economic Life in the South
THE EXPANSION OF SLAVERY IN
A GLOBAL ECONOMY
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In 1860 the American South, if independent, would have been one
of the wealthiest countries in the world in per capita income based
on the revenue of the cotton trade
Cotton cultivation and its expansion depended on technological
development, land, labor, demand, and a global system of trade
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Technology: cotton gin invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney
Cotton gin increased land and labor needs leading to western
expansion
The industrial revolution spurred demand for cotton clothing
From 1815 to 1860 cotton was more than half of all American
exports
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Cotton encouraged economic growth in the U.S. as well as in England
Cotton production grew from 461,000 bales in 1817 to 4.8 million in
1860
SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA
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Europeans depended on African slavery in their New
World colonies
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Brazil with 1 million slaves in 1800 had the largest slave
population
Historians used to believe that a variety of differences due to
Spanish culture and Catholic religion made slavery there less
harsh but they no longer believe this
African slaves were imported to replace the indigenous
populations that were eradicated by disease
Sugar production was the cash crop for the Latin
American holdings of the European powers
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–
Did work in a variety of other agricultural and mining fields as
well as in construction, cowherding, transportation and as
servants
Women were expected to perform same physical tasks as men
SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA

Conditions in sugar production were especially bad since
increasing productivity meant slaves could be cheaply replaces as
they paid for themselves within two years
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Average working life of slaves fell from 15 to 7 years
Death rate increased from 6 to 10%
Slaves were predominantly male with a 3:2 ratio in general and a 2:1
ratio on sugar plantations of Brazil and Cuba
Birthrate was 40 per 1000 compared to 50 per 1000 in U.S., while the
death rate was appalling
Slave population actually dropped in nineteenth century
Slave trade replaced lost labor and after it was ended, smuggling
served that role
Intermarriages among Indians, slaves and Europeans led to an
increase in population of free people of color who outnumbered
slaves by mid-century
SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA

Latin American slaves obtained their freedom
through interracial marriage, as payment for
special favors and other contracts, in wills on a
master’s death and by purchasing their own
freedom
–
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Relative autonomy and incentives were given to
many slaves
Conditions were as harsh or harsher than in
United States but rights of slaves were more
fluid
WHITE AND BLACK MIGRATIONS
IN THE SOUTH

Between 1830 and 1860, southerners began to migrate in a
southwest direction to fill up the fertile land and increase cotton
production for the mills of England
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The center of cotton production shifted from the Carolinas and
Georgia to Mississippi in the 1830s then to Arkansas, Louisiana and
eastern Texas in the 1850s
Migrants were also pushed west by exhaustion of former lands and
deteriorating economic conditions
Those who did not move, diversified
Internal slave trade from Upper South to Lower South became a
huge industry
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Congress ended the external slave trade on January 1,1808, the
same year as Great Britain., though enforcement was weak
Increase in slave population came primarily from reproduction
SOUTHERN DEPENDENCE ON
SLAVERY

Number of slaves rose form 1.5 million in 1820 to 4
million in 1860
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Slavery was profitable as a source of labor and capital
investment
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Most worked on farms or plantations but 15% were domestic
servants and the other 300,000 worked in a variety of areas
While some southern industrialists argued should favor poor
whites in hiring, most switched to slaves who were cheaper
and unlikely to organize
“Crop value per slave” increased from $15 in 1800 to $125 in
1860
Slave women were likely to produce 2 to 6 children
Dependence on cotton and slave economy was
limiting, inhibiting growth of cities and industry
PATERNALISM AND HONOR IN
THE PLANTER CLASS

The aversion to industrialism stemmed from
adherence to traditions medieval chivalry,
Protestantism and Celtic Scots-Irish heritage which
led to a refined paternalism based on a rigid sense of
social-class hierarchy and obligations
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Wealthy planters insisted on deference
Head of plantation had to care for “inferiors,” like a kindly
father
An intensely masculine code of honor placed the
virtue of women on a pedestal and expected women
to maintain sexual purity, spiritual piety, and
submissive patience while managing the household
The masculine code had a rigid code of honor and the
slightest insult could lead to a duel
SLAVERY, CLASS, AND YEOMAN
FARMERS
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The proportion of southern white families who owned slaves
declined from 40 to 25% though the ideal of slave ownership
permeated all classes and determined the South’s patriarchal
and hierarchical character
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Economic, social and political standing depended on owning
slaves
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At the top was the planter aristocracy of some 3000 families with
more than 50 slaves
A slightly larger group owned 10 to 50 slaves
Most slaveholders, 70%, had fewer than 10 slaves and were
considered yeoman farmers
Gave all whites feelings of superiority over blacks
Few southerners supported emancipation
Yeoman farmers defended their independence and property and
focused most of their political attention on local issues
–
Adamantly believed in evangelical Christianity
THE NONSLAVEHOLDING SOUTH

Seventy-five percent of white southerners owned no
slaves and some 30 to 50% were landless
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Herdsmen raised hogs and other livestock
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Lived especially in Appalachian highlands and were largely
self-sufficient
Were politically marginalized despite their numerical
superiority
South raised two-thirds of nation’s hogs
Below herdsmen were poorest 10% of population
often called “crackers” or “dirt eaters”
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Often suffered from diseases whose side effects earned them
a reputation as lazy
MORNING: MASTER AND
MISTRESS IN THE BIG HOUSE
Morning was a
time for slaves to
get up and go to
work
 For whites it
involved contact
with slaves in
many ways

THE BURDENS OF
SLAVEHOLDING
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Sickness and death of slaves headed
concerns of slaveowners
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Many tried to keep families together but sold
slaves when necessary
Felt a need to control lower class whites as
well as slaves
Many owners felt they worked harder than the
slaves to feed and clothe them
THE PLANTATION MISTRESS

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Women were expected to improve their
husbands’ morals and beautify their parlors
for proper hospitality
Suffered under a double standard of morality.
Were responsible for the food, clothing, health
and welfare of the slaves
JUSTIFYING SLAVERY
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Biblical Justification: ancient curse upon Ham, a child of Noah
and other references
Historical Justification: all great civilizations participated in
slavery
Legal Justification: the U.S. Constitution refused to address
slavery directly
Pseudo-Scientific Justification: multiple theories regarding
inferiority of the black race
Sociological Justification: the black race as societal “children”
that needed paternalistic guidance
Problem was slavery ran against the main trend of nineteenthcentury America: the expansion of individual liberty, mobility,
economic opportunity and democratic political participation
NOON: SLAVES IN HOUSE AND
FIELDS
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Lunch for slaves was usually pork and
cornmeal
DAILY TOIL
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Slaves were expected to work an average of 14 hours per day
during warm weather and 10 hours in the winter, with 18 hours
common during harvest
Slaves were organized either in gangs or by the task system
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Work gangs of 20 to 25 slaves labored under the whip of a “slave
driver.
The task system allowed slaves to finish a designated task each day
at their own pace and was thus preferred by slaves
A normal slave was expected to pick 130 to 150 pounds of cotton a
day
House slaves had relatively easier assignments, ate and dressed
better
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Slaves did most of skilled artisan work on plantations
House slaves suffered from closer supervision and more conflict
with whites
SLAVE HEALTH AND
PUNISHMENTS
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Slaves led sickly lives in one-room cabins with dirt floors
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Enslaved women especially suffered weaknesses caused by vitamin
deficiency, hard work, and disease along with those associated with
menstruation and childbirth
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Mortality of slave children under 5 was twice as high as for white children
American slave life expectancy was higher than that of Latin
American or Caribbean slaves but they were very susceptible to
epidemics
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Cabins let in pests and often housed more than one family
Clothing was issued once or twice a year and was shabby and uncomfortable
Compared to Latin American slaves, U.S. slaves ate well though they rarely
enjoyed fresh meat, dairy products, fruits or vegetables which resulted in a variety
of maladies
Average of 20% of slaves on a plantation would be sick at any one time
Frequent physical punishment aggravated the poor physical
conditions of slaves so many slave holders preferred reward to
punishment
SLAVE LAW AND THE FAMILY
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Slaves were both human beings and property which complicated
their legal status
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After the 1831 Nat Turner rebellion and increased abolitionist
attacks by Northerners, Southerners tightened up the slave system,
preventing manumission while strengthening laws designed to
protect slaves from overly severe treatment
Laws were rarely enforced and treatment depended on the master
While some masters believed families made slaves more docile,
there was no protection for them or for slave women who were
often sexually abused
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Masters encouraged slave women to have children
Masters sometimes chose mates but more often slaves chose their
own
Caring for children doubled a female slaves burden
Masters dissolved one third of slave marriages through sale
NIGHT: SLAVES IN THEIR
QUARTERS
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In the slave quarters, slaves preserved much
of their African heritage and created an
elaborate black community
BLACK CHRISTIANITY
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Christian worship was an integral part of life in the
slave quarters
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Black religious gatherings were usually forbidden
unless a white overseer was present or a white
preacher led them
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Black Christianity often included aspects of Islamic and
African religions
Independent black Baptist and Methodist churches steered a
careful path to maintain their freedom
Majority of slaves attended plantation churches established
by their masters who saw religion as a form of social control
Slaves often countered with secret meetings and an
“invisible church.
THE POWER OF SONG

Music was a crucial form of both secular and
religious expression
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Slaves were adept at creating a song
Spirituals reiterated the theme of a chosen people,
held in bondage but who would be delivered
Some slave songs had double or hidden
meanings
THE ENDURING FAMILY
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Family relationships were central to the lives of most
slaves
Slaves could draw love, protection, support,
knowledge, and cultural identity from these extended
families
Slaves often performed extra work for money to
provide sugar or clothing; hunted and fished for extra
food or tended vegetable garden
Slaves sought to use family intervention, appeals for
mercy, conjurers’ magic and even force to prevent
abuse
RESISTANCE AND FREEDOM
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Songs, folktales and other forms of cultural
expression allowed slaves to articulate their
resistance to slavery
FORMS OF BLACK PROTEST
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Daily acts of resistance might include breaking of
tools, burning houses or crops, stealing food, self
mutilation or simple work slowdowns
Females might fake sickness or menstrual cramps.
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Often formed networks of support
Slaves also played on struggles between overseers
and masters
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Many masters resorted to using black drivers though this
caught the driver between his fellow slaves and the master
FORMS OF BLACK PROTEST
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Another form of resistance was running away which
was most frequently done by young black men to
avoid punishment or protest conditions
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Would often return after a few days though some hid out for
months or years or even escaped to maroon communities
The Underground Railroad, a series of safe houses and
stations where slaves could eat and rest, helped slaves
escape north
Most slaves who attempted to escape to the North or
Canada, and there were not many, were caught
Slaves also petitioned Congress and state
legislatures for their freedom or sought to buy it
through extra work
SLAVE REVOLTS
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The ultimate act of resistance was rebellion
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While there were many conspiracies, few led to action, often
because of betrayal by fellow slaves such as in the Gabriel
uprising in Virginia in 1800 and the Denmark Vesey incident
in South Carolina in 1822
Few revolts, especially compared to Latin America,
actually occurred in U.S.
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Nat Turner revolt in Virginia in 1831 which resulted in the
death of 55 white people was the most severe in the country
FREE BLACKS: Becoming One’s Own
Master
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About twelve percent of the African American
population was free, doubling from 233,500 in 1820 to
488,000 in 1860
More than half the free blacks lived in the Upper
South
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One-third lived in cities or towns
Tended to be older, more literate and lighter skinned than
other African Americans
Most were poor farmhands, day laborers or wood cutters
Men could work at skilled jobs such as barbering,
shoemaking and plastering while women tended to be cooks,
laundresses and domesitcs
FREE BLACKS: Becoming One’s Own
Master
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The 15% of free African Americans who lived in the Lower South
were divided into two castes: a majority of poor blacks but also a
small, usually mixed-blood, elite often closely connected to white
society
Urban whites sought to restrain blacks from mixing with whites and to
either confine them to certain parts of the city or leave altogether
Key institution was the African American church which gave spiritual
solace, set community standards and offered a host of educational,
insurance, self-help and recreational opportunities
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African American Catholics were not left out though the low ordination of
black priests gave a special place to black sisterhoods who ministered to
the aged and started schools
Served as springboards for activist black preachers seeking changes in
the larger community
Strength of free black communities combined with growing crisis over
slavery led to increasing pressures from white southerners to either
deport or enslave free blacks
DISCOVERING U.S. HISTORY
ONLINE
Slave Culture
http://www.kingtisdell.org/exhibit.htm

Letters from the Slave States
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1857stirling.html

Africans in America, 1791-1831
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/index.html

Songs of the Underground Railroad
http://www.appleseedrec.com/underground/songs.html

Virginia Runaways
http://people.uvawise.edu/runaways/

North American Slave Narratives, Beginnings to 1920
http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/
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