Download Transformation of Europe: 1450 – 1750: Era of Revolutions I

Transformation of Europe: 1450 – 1750: Era of Revolutions
I. Renaissance
A. Italian Renaissance
 Renaissance, or rebirth of art and learning, 1350-1600
 Aristocrats, popes, nobles became wealthy patrons and vied to outdo one another
 City-states sponsored innovations in art and architecture
 Macaccio, Leonard) used linear perspective to show depth
 Sculptors (Donatello and Michelangelo) created natural poses
B. Renaissance architecture
 Simple, elegant style, inherited from classical Greek and Roman
 Magnificent domed cathedrals
 Brunelleschi's cathedral of Florence
 St. Peter’s in Rome
C. Humanists or Man is the Measure of All Things
 Drew inspiration from classical models especially Greece, Rome
 Leading scholars included Dante, Petrarch
 Scholars interested in humane letters
 Literature, history, and moral philosophy
 Called humanists
 Recovered and translated many classical works
 Attention to political and social issues and graces, too
 Boccaccio’s Decameron
 Castiglione’s The Courtier
 Machiavelli’s The Prince
D. Northern Renaissance
 Especially strong in France, England, Netherlands
 Focus was more on science, math, and Christianity (language favored was Hebrew)
 Strongly supported by the middle classes and minor nobles
 Leading figures include Shakespeare, Durer, Erasmus, Protestant reformers
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II. Protestant Reformation
A. Precursors to Luther
 Great Schism
 2 to 3 popes at same time undermined authority of the church
 Church councils rule/attempt to overrule popes
 Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England
 Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices
 Both condemned by Church
 Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England
 Wycliffe had Bible translated into English
B. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
 Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517
 Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform
 Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read
 Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities
 By mid-16th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism
C. Reform spread outside Germany
 Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands
 Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival
 English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce
D. John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism
 Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530s
 Calvinist missionaries were successful in France
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Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland
John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland
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III. Catholic Church
A. Early Attempts to Reform
 Catholic cardinals, bishops call council in early 15th century
 Council of Constance deposes rival popes
 Attempts to assert authority over pope, initial reforms
 Catholic intellectuals attack Church corruption
 Emperor Sigismund attempts to reform church in Germany
B. Church reaction to Luther, Protestants
 Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther
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 King Henry VIII condemns Luther
 Inquisition unleashed against Protestants
 Spanish use wealth to fund anti-Protestants
C. The Council of Trent, 1545-1563
 Directed reform of Roman Catholic Church
 Attacked corruption
 Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal
D. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
 Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola
 High standards in education
 Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work
 Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants
 Became confessors, advisories to kings
 Worldwide missionaries
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IV. Religious Conflicts
A. Between Protestants, Catholics during 16TH century
 Wars as much social, political as religious
 Neither side is innocent of conflict
B. Civil war in France
 Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League
 Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles
 Lasted thirty-six years (1562-1598)
 Ended with new dynasty
C. Spanish Armada
 War between Catholic Spain, Protestant England, 1588
 Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands
 Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant
Elizabeth
D. Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain
 Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain
 Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north
(Holland)
E. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
 The most destructive European war up to WWI
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Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe
Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population
Saw rise of Sweden as Great Power and eclipse of Spain, Hapsburgs as European
great power
 Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire
 Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire
F. Scottish Presbyterians revolt
 Expel Catholic Queen with England’s secret assistance
 Raise her kidnapped son as Presbyterian
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Europe’s Religious Map
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V. State-Building
 Italian city-states
 Flourished with industries and trade
 Each with independent administration and army
 Levied direct taxes on citizens
 More powerful absorbed smallest
 France and England
 Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
 Fought for control of French lands
 Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war
 Central government over feudal nobility
 English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty
 Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy
 Spain united
 By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile
 Sales tax supported a powerful standing army
 Conquered Granada from Muslims
 Seized southern Italy in 1494
 Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China
 Competition among European states
 Frequent small-scale wars
 Encouraged new military and naval technology
 Technological innovations strengthened armies
 Dynastic Politics
 Constant search for an heir
 Must marry for political advantage
 Gave women influence as regents, brides, mother of heir
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VI. New Monarchies
A. New Monarchs
 Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century
 Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society
 Developing towards divine right monarchs answerable only to God, not people
 Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France are two best examples
B. France, England and Spain
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 All three united after long wars
 Kings have new, broad powers
 Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes
C. Enhanced royal, centralized powers
 Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees
 State power enlarged and more centralized
 Standing armies in France and Spain
 Professional bureaucrats loyal only to monarch, not church
 Nobility status often sold to wealthy merchants to raise funds
 Reformation increased royal power
 Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church
 Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state
 Even Catholic monarchs tended to follow this trend
D. New law courts enhance royal power
 Kings tend to function above the law
 English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials
 The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478
 Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews
 Used by Spanish monarchy to detect Protestant heresy and political dissidents
 French Parliaments reduced to law courts not legislative assemblies
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VII. Attempted Revival of Empires
A. Charles V
 Reigned 1519-1556
 Holy Roman Emperor
 Austria
 Czech lands, Silesia
 Hungary, Slovakia,
 Slovenia, Croatia
 Netherlands
 Eastern France
 Milan, Northern Italy
 King of Spain
 Castile
 Navarre
 Catalonia
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 Two Sicilies
 Spanish American Empire, Philippines
Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage
Unable to establish a unified state
B. Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire
 German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move
 Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor
 Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence
 France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies
 Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire
 France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles
 Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength
VIII. Constitutional and Absolute Monarchies
A. Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands
 Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy
 Characterized by
 Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention
 No one is above the law, property is protected by law
 Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto
 Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity
 Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference
 Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars
 England’s road to rights
 Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war
 English Glorious Revolution 1688
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 English Bill of Rights 1689
B. Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia
 Based on the theory of the divine right of kings
 Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies
 Great trappings of power especially palaces, images
 Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church
 Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth
 Spain, Austria united by Hapsburg marriage, inheritance
 Cardinal Richelieu
 French chief minister 1624-1642
 Crushed power of nobles
 Supported Protestants, Sweden against Hapsburgs, Spain, Austria
 Prussia began to rise in late 17th century
 Based on absolutism and army
 Eventually will unite Germany
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IX. Louis XIV of France
A. King of France
 Called the Sun King
 Planets revolve around the sun
 Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system
 Reigned 1643-1715
B. Bureaucracy
 Used middle class for professional bureaucrats
 Established intendants tp carry out wishes
C. Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles
 Nobles reduced to serving king, state
 Became generals, diplomats, ministers
 Lived at Versailles where king spied on them
D. Large professional standing army
 Well trained, well paid, well equipped
 Kept, enforced order
E. Mercantilism and Colonies
 Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth
 Promoted economic development: roads, canals
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 Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries
 Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India
F. Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model
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X. European State System
A. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
 Ended the Thirty Years' War
 Began system of independent sovereign states
 Abandoned notion of religion unity
 Did not end war between European states
B. The balance of power
 No state allowed to dominate others
 Diplomacy based on shifting alliances
 No permanent alliances
 Only permanent interests
 Religion unimportant to determining alliances
 Destroy no nation
 Make no permanent enemies
C. Military development costly and competitive
 New armaments (cannons and small arms)
 New military tactics
 Extremely intricate fortifications
 Professional navies with modern warships, weapons
 China, India, and the Islamic states did not keep apace
 Small, well-trained armies become critical
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XI. The Nation State
A. Nation-State
 Ethnic group with common language, culture
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Shared history, traditions
Shared institutions (faith, politics)
Occupying a common territory
Ruled by a common government
Government’s job
 Insure domestic tranquility and happiness
 Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles
 Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state
B. Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology
 Love of your nation above others is nationalism
 Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite
 Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope
 Martin Luther addresses the “German People”
 King James, Wycliffe translate Bible into English
 French have Joan of Arc fighting for France against English
 Scotsmen, English resent Catholic “Romish” influence
 Dutch, Portuguese, Catalans revolt against foreign Spanish rule
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XII. War and Peace in Europe
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XIII. Population Growth
A. Population growth
 American foods improved European nutrition, diets
 Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650s
 Life spans increased
 Infant deaths decrease
 Population growth
 American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets
 Increased resistance to epidemic diseases after the mid-seventeenth century
 European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800
 Urbanization
 Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650
 Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers
 Most dramatic in Ireland, England, Poland, France, Netherlands
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B. Urbanization
 Rapid growth of major cities
 For example, Paris from 130,000 (1550) to 500,000 (1650)
 London, Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Lyons
 Cities increasingly important: administrative, commercial, intellectual centers
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XIV. Early Capitalism
A. Profits and ethics
 Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful
 Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society
 Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor
B. Early capitalism
 Led to increased influence for urban middle classes
 Altered rural society
 Improved material standards
 Increased independence of rural workers
 Capitalism generated deep social strains
 Bandits, muggers, witch-hunting
 Began to impoverish urban workers
 Pricing Revolutions were common
 Impoverished aristocrats, peasants
 Too much money chasing too few goods
C. The Price Revolution
 Use of money replaced barter
 Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances
 Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver
 Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing
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 Both countries had to import goods
 Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver
D. Too much money chasing too few goods
 Inflation resulted
 Peasants, aristocrats
 On fixed incomes
 Payment in kind economies suffered
 Inflation drove real wages down
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XV. Commercial Revolution
A. The nature of capitalism
 Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions
 Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility
 Forces of supply and demand determined price
 New managerial skills and banking arrangements arose
B. Supply and demand
 Merchants built efficient transportation and communication networks
 New institutions and services: banks, insurance, stock exchanges
C. Joint-stock companies
 Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies
 Organized commerce on a new scale
 Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands
D. Rise of Manufacturing
 Colonial markets, population stimulated manufacturing
 Putting-out system of 17th and 18th centuries
 Entrepreneurs bypassed guilds
 Moved production to countryside
 Rural labor cheap, cloth production highly profitable
E. Capitalism actively supported by governments
 Especially in England and Netherlands
 Chartered joint-stock companies
 Protected property, upheld contracts, settled disputes
F. Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations
 Considered the founding father of capitalism
 Society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests
 States were to support private interests, free trade
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XVI. More Changes in Europe
A. Mass Culture Arises
 Nationalism, national faiths arise embracing all
 Use of some luxuries becomes common
 Rise of leisure time even for poorer peoples
 Rise of professional entertainment
 Immigration by commoners to colonies
B. Agriculture changes
 New technologies applied to farming
 Draining swamps, animal breeding
 New tools to increase productivity
 Introduction of new world crops, i.e. potato
C. Manufacturing
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 Mass produced items common: textiles, metal products
 Capitalism stimulates production as profitable
 New jobs caused people to move into manufacturing from agriculture
D. New Social Classes
 Rise of entrepreneurial class with great wealth
 Rise of a technological managerial class
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XVII. Social Change, Social Protest
A. Rise of urban, rural working class
 Referred to as proletariat
 Paid low wages in horrible conditions
 At mercy of price revolutions
 Many peasants reduced to paid wages
B. Population growth
 Urbanization increased tensions
 Growth increased poverty
C. Social Tensions
 Peasant revolts especially during Reformation
 In France, Germany rose against landlords
 Many sought more radical forms of Protestantism
 Urban citizens also tended towards Protestantism
 Persecution of witches
D. Elite and Mass Culture
 Prior to Reformation, there were two cultures, elite and common
 Two rarely intermixed or cooperated
 Mass culture such as entertainment
 Faith often became elite culture
E. The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism
 Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally
 Love between men and women
 Parents and children became more important
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XVIII. Gender Issues in Europe
A. Renaissance saw expansion of women’s rights
 Books written for women
 Education of women allowed
 Women could enter public arena as intellectuals
 Artesmia Gentileschi was a painter
B. Reformation took back many of the rights
 Many reformers were women
 Many threatened males traditional roles
 Margaritte of Navarre, Elizabeth of England
 Protestants emphasized family role of women
C. Witch-hunts in Europe
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 Theories, fears of witches intensified in 16th century
 Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship
 About sixty thousand executed, 95 percent of them women
D. Commercial, Capitalist Revolution
 Women needed often to support family by outside work
 Many women merchants very successful
 Women assumed new economic roles
E. Education and Women
 Education was one of few avenues open to women
 Aristocratic women often educated
F. Enlightenment saw first major victories for women’s rights
 Women ran intellectual salons of France
 Many very prominent as philosophes: Madame de Stael
 Some few feminists appeared
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XIX. Scientific Revolutions
A. The re-conception of the universe
 The Ptolemaic universe
 A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres
 Could not account for observable movement of the planets
 Compatible with Christian conception of creation
 The Copernican universe
 Copernicus suggested sun was center of universe, 1543
 Implied that the earth was just another planet
B. The Scientific Revolution
 Science becomes the new authority and challenges faith for control
 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) demonstrated planetary orbits elliptical
 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
 With a telescope saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon
 Theory of velocity, falling bodies anticipated modern law of inertia
 Tried by Inquisition as his ideas challenged Papal infallibility
 Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686
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Mathematical explanations of laws govern movements of bodies
Newton's work symbolized the scientific revolution
 Direct observation
 Mathematical reasoning
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XX. Enlightenment
A. Enlightenment
 Thinkers called philosophes
 Sought natural laws that governed human society
 Center of Enlightenment was France
 Theory of progress was ideology of philosophes
 Apply reason/science to society, government, law
B. Voltaire (1694-1778)
 Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom
 Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment
C. John Locke
 All human knowledge comes from sense perceptions
 Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights
 Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler
D. Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price
E. Montesquieu: checks, balances, balanced government
F. Deism
 Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment
 Accepted existence of a god
 Denied supernatural teachings of Christianity
 God the Clockmaker
 Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws
G. Impact of Enlightenment
 Weakened the influence of organized religion
 Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation
 Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress and prosperity
 Enlightenment applied science to every day life and made science practical
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