Download Homework due Monday – Free Responses

Homework due Monday – Free Responses –
Test 12/13 early next week – work on terms
Notes missed on Friday below this
Directions: DO NOT REVIEW THE FREE RESPONSES PRIOR TO STARTING TO WRITE. There is no
grade on the free response itself.
Time yourself 60 minutes.
Use all ‘tricks’ – pen, spacing, underlining, etc.
Mike is a 15 year old HS student who is considering what classes to take in his next year of high school.
Discuss how each of the following aspects of development would impact his decision about which classes to
take:
 Early physical maturation
 Emergence of formal operation thought
 Emergence of post-conventional morality
 Adolescent egocentricism
 Androgynous sex role
 Secure attachment as an infant
 Growing up under Authoritarian parents
History and Perspectives
Philosophers and psychologists have long debated the relative influences of heredity and environment on
behavior. Give and example of how each of the following perspectives would explain their position on what is
commonly referred to as the “nature versus nurture controversy.” Students must identify which side of the
“controversy their example is addressing.
 Humanistic psychology
 Evolutionary psychology
 Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic
 Developmental psychology
 Cognitive psychology
Sexual Motivation
Describe the human sexual response cycle, and discuss some causes of sexual disorders.
Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of
making people procreate, enabling our species
to survive.
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The Physiology of Sex
Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human
sexual response to consist of four phases:
Phase
Physiological Response
Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina
Excitement expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.
Plateau
Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and
blood pressure.
Orgasm
Contractions all over the body. Increase in
breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.
Resolution
Engorged genital release blood. Male goes
through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.
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Evolutionary function of orgasm
Male orgasms that expel sperm from the body into the vagina during intercourse may result in conception.
Evolutionary biologists have several hypotheses about the role, if any, of the female orgasm in the reproductive process.
1. In 1967, Desmond Morris , The Naked Ape, atests that female orgasm evolved to encourage physical intimacy
with a male partner and help reinforce the pair bond. Morris suggested that the relative difficulty in achieving
female orgasm, in comparison to the male's, might be favorable in Darwinian evolution by leading the female to
select mates who bear qualities like patience, care, imagination, intelligence, as opposed to qualities like size
and aggression, which pertain to mate selection in other primates.
2. It has also been proposed that orgasm might facilitate conception by exhausting the female and keeping her
horizontal, thus preventing the sperm from leaking out. This possibility, sometimes called the "Poleax
Hypothesis" or the "Knockout Hypothesis," is now considered highly doubtful. A number of feminists see this
as misogynistic, as it favors the concept of sex as female subjugation.
3. Other theories are based on the idea that the female orgasm might increase fertility. For example, the 30%
reduction in size of the vagina could help clench onto the penis (much like, or perhaps caused by, the
pubococcygeus muscles), which would make it more stimulating for the male (thus ensuring faster or more
voluminous ejaculation).
4. The British biologists Baker and Bellis have suggested that the female orgasm may have an "upsuck" action
(similar to the esophagus' ability to swallow when upside down), resulting in the retaining of favorable sperm
and making conception more likely. A 1994 Learning Channel documentary on sex had fiber optic cameras
inside the vagina of a woman while she had sexual intercourse. During her orgasm, her pelvic muscles
contracted and her cervix repeatedly dipped into a pool of semen in the vaginal fornix, "Sperm Upsuck”, of a
sort, did occur.
The observation that women tend to reach orgasm more easily when they are ovulating suggests that it is tied to
increasing fertility.
Other biologists surmise that the orgasm simply serves to motivate sex, thus increasing the rate of reproduction, which
would be selected for during evolution. Since males typically reach orgasms faster than females, it potentially
encourages a female's desire to engage in intercourse more frequently, increasing the likelihood of conception.
Sexual disorders are problems that consistently impair sexual functioning
Premature ejaculation and female orgasmic disorder are being successfully treated by new methods that assume
that people learn and can modify their sexual responses.
Discuss the impact of hormones on sexual motivation and behavior.
The sex hormones direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics and, especially in nonhuman
animals, activate sexual behavior.
Although testosterone and estrogen are present in both sexes, males have a higher level of testosterone and females
a higher level of estrogen.
Testosterone
Levels of testosterone remain constant in males,
so it is difficult to manipulate and activate
sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces
testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.
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Estrogen
Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of
estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened
with estrogen injections.
Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than
on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when
close to ovulation (increased testosterone), and men
show increased testosterone levels when socializing
with women.
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External stimuli, such as sexually explicit materials, can trigger arousal in both men and women, although the
activated brain areas differ somewhat.
Sexually coercive material tends to increase viewers’ acceptance of rape and violence toward women.
Images of sexually attractive men and women may lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships.
Imagined Stimuli
Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images
Our imagination in our brain can influence
sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal
cord injuries and no genital sensation can still
feel sexual desire.
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Our imaginations also influence sexual motivation.
For example, in nearly all men and some 40 percent of women, dreams sometimes do contain sexual imagery
that leads to orgasm.
The increase in premarital sexual activity among American teenagers has led to an increase in the adolescent pregnancy
rate.
Contraception
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the
right ideas about birth control methods.
Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces
sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of
contraceptives.
Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel
uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.
Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are
less likely to use contraceptives.
Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe
extramarital sex decreases the use of
contraceptives.
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Sexually Transmitted Infections
Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens.
1.
2.
3.
4.
High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence
are likely to delay sex.
Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve
sex for a marital commitment.
Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can
contribute to higher teen sexual activity.
Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor
in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy
are less likely to engage in unsafe sex.
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Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference
for emotional and sexual relationships with
individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or
either sex.
Homosexual
Heterosexual
Bisexual
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Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward members of either our own sex (homosexual) or the other
sex (heterosexual).
Studies in both Europe and the United States suggest that about 3 or 4 percent of men and 1 or 2 percent of
women are exclusively homosexual.
Estimates derived from the sex of unmarried partners reported in the 2000 U.S.
Census suggest that 2.5 percent of the population is gay or lesbian. Such studies also tell us that sexual
orientation is enduring
Animal Homosexuality
David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images
A number of animal
species are devoted to
same-sex partners,
suggesting that
homosexuality exists
in the animal world.
Wendell and Cass
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The Brain
In homosexual men, the size of the anterior
hypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and the
anterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski,
1992).
http://www.msu.edu
Anterior
Commissure
Anterior
Hypothalamus
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Genes & Sexual Orientation
A number of reasons suggest that
homosexuality may be due to genetic factors.
1.
2.
3.
Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families.
Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in
identical twins than fraternal twins. However,
there are mixed results.
Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically
manipulate females to act like males during
courtship and males to act like females.
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Sexual Orientation: Biology
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The Need to Belong
Belongingness
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our
thinking and emotions.
Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with
others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation
decreases it.
Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking
social bonds, even bad ones.
Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to
demoralization, depression, and at times nasty
behavior.
Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close
friends are happier and healthier.
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Motivation at Work
Discuss the importance of flow, and identify the three subfields of industrial-organizational psychology.
Flow & Rewards
Flow is the experience between no work and a
lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s
work.
People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers,
composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards
(money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic
rewards.
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Industrial-Organizational (I/O)
Psychology
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1.
Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of
selecting and evaluating workers.
2.
Organizational Psychology: Studies how work
environments and management styles influence
worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
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The Interviewer Illusion
Interviewers often overrate their discernment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but longlasting habits matter even more.
Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likely
to talk about those employees that turned out
successful.
Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewers
presume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) is
what we get.
Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledge
about the candidate may affect her judgment.
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Define achievement motivation, and explain why organizations would employ an I/O
psychologist to help motivate employees and foster employee satisfaction.
Achievement motivation is the desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideals, for control, and for
rapidly attaining a high standard.
»
Those who achieve the most are distinguished not so much by natural ability as by hard work and daily
discipline.
»
Engaged workers know what’s expected of them, feel fulfilled in their work, and perceive that they are part of
something significant. Worker satisfaction and engagement are associated with lower absenteeism, higher
productivity, and greater profits.
Leadership Style
Different organizational demands need different
kinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a bossfocused style to a democratic style.
1.
2.
Task Leadership: Involves setting standards,
organizing work, and focusing on goals.
Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and
building high achieving teams.
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Theory X: assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should
be directed from above.
Theory Y: assumes that, given challenges and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to
demonstrate their competence and creativity.