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“A clear conscience is the sure sign of a bad memory.”
Levels of Processing Model
Our brain works like a
computer. Computers
Convert info. into binary code
(Encoding), Store it on a hard
drive (Storage), and open the
file when needed (Retrieval).
But Computers
can’t parallel
process, like
we can!
Information Processing Model
information passes through 3
stages as it is saved: sensory
memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory.
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
“Saving” Information.
Done by Hippocampus (During REM Sleep)
Semantic Encoding: the “Meaning” of something, often
times referring to language & vocabulary.
Automatic Processing
Happens without choice.
(Ex. What you had for lunch)


Effortful Processing
When you try to remember something
(Ex. Studying)
*The amount learned depends on the time spent learning (Ebbinghaus)
*Effortful Processing eventually leads to things becoming automatic!
Spacing Effect
Rehearsals spread out over
time are more effective.
(Don’t Cram!)


Rehearsal: Conscious repetition of information-To keep in short term
memory or to encode it (Ex. Flashcards, Going over Reading Guides)
Mnemonic: Memory Aid
Imagery
Using mental pictures in order to
remember.
(Ex. Freud w/pants off)
(Ex. Awkward class examples)

Chunking
Grouping items into meaningful,
familiar units. (Acronyms)
(Ex. ROY G BIV)
(EX. TGIF)
Hierarchies: A mental filing system that groups similar memories/info.
(Ex. Reading Guide, Textbook Organization)
Should I have made
you do this yourself?
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front
of you. As you see each word, count the number of vowels
and the number of consonants in each word. For example,
the word Fishing has two vowels and five consonants. Thus,
you would record v = 2, c = 5 (vowels = 2, consonants = 5).
Record your answers below.
Do not record the actual word, simply the NUMBERS.
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front of you. As you see
each word, pronounce it to yourself,
and determine how difficult
the word is to pronounce (use your best judgment). Rate the difficulty of
pronunciation for each word on a 7-point scale (1 = very simple to
pronounce, 4 = moderate pronunciation, 7 = extremely difficult to
pronounce). Record your answers (a number 1 – 7) in the spaces provided
below. Do not record the actual word, simply the NUMBER.
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front of you. As
you see each word, think about how useful this item would be to you if
you were stranded on a desert island in the middle of the Pacific
Ocean. Rate each items usefulness on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all
useful, 4 = somewhat useful, 7 = extremely useful/life saving). Mark
your answers (a number 1 – 7) in the spaces provided below. Do not
record the actual word, simply the NUMBER.

Volleyball

Tomato

Diary

Machete

Tuxedo

Mayonnaise

Tent

Bicycle

Opossum

Lighter

Stapler

hat

Syringe

Belt

Headphones





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Headphones
Tuxedo
Tomato
Belt
Syringe
Hat
Stapler
Diary







Lighter
Opposum
Bicycle
Machete
Tent
Mayonnaise
Volleyball
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front
of you. As you see each word, count the number of vowels
and the number of consonants in each word. For example,
the word Fishing has two vowels and five consonants. Thus,
you would record v = 2, c = 5 (vowels = 2, consonants = 5).
Record your answers below.
Do not record the actual word, simply the NUMBERS.
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front of you. As you see
each word, pronounce it to yourself,
and determine how difficult
the word is to pronounce (use your best judgment). Rate the difficulty of
pronunciation for each word on a 7-point scale (1 = very simple to
pronounce, 4 = moderate pronunciation, 7 = extremely difficult to
pronounce). Record your answers (a number 1 – 7) in the spaces provided
below. Do not record the actual word, simply the NUMBER.
Directions:
One-at-a-time, 15 words will appear on the screen in front of you. As
you see each word, think about how useful this item would be to you if
you were stranded on a desert island in the middle of the Pacific
Ocean. Rate each items usefulness on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all
useful, 4 = somewhat useful, 7 = extremely useful/life saving). Mark
your answers (a number 1 – 7) in the spaces provided below. Do not
record the actual word, simply the NUMBER.
=
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
Most memories stored in Cerebral Cortex.
Long-Term Potentiation:
Thinking about memories strengthens those neural networks.
(Ex. Frequently visited Website or Well-worn path)

Memories not accessed will disappear, or do they?
Do you remember
Childhood Phone
Number?
Procedural information/Memory involves
motor skills, actions, muscle memory
(Ex. “Loop & Swoop” to tie your shoe)
Implicit Memory/
Nondeclarative Memory
 Procedural information
 No active thinking
 Processed in cerebellum
 “You just know how to”
Explicit Memory/
Declarative Memory
 Personal Experiences (Episodic Info.)
 Gen. Knowledge/Facts (Semantic Info.)
 Processed in Hippocampus
 Ex. Address, how many tires on car, etc.

Flashbulb Memories
It’s like having a
photograph of
the event
permanently in
your mind.
Vivid, clear memories of an emotionally significant moments or
events that are processed in the amygdala, which often ties
emotion to information. (Ex. 911, First Kiss, Injury)
Retrograde
Amnesia
the inability to recall past
memories due to extreme
stress (Usually temporary)
Anterograde
Amnesia
the inability to form new
memories due to damage
to the hippocampus
(Permanent)

Bringing information from long-term memory
back to short-term memory.
Recall
Retrieving without a cue
(Ex. Essay Questions)
Vs.
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first
(Primacy Effect) and last (Recency
Effect) items of a list. We tend to
forget the middle of a list.
Recognition
Retrieving w/ use of a retrieval cue
(Ex. MC Test, Police Line-up)
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
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Elizabeth Loftus showed that memories are changed by
new and different information.
We all incorporate false information (unconsciously) into
our memories (Misinformation Effect)
We all also remember events, but not the context in
which they occurred (Source Amnesia)
State-Dependent Memory
Using your state of consciousness
as a retrieval cue.
Mood-Dependent Memory
Using your mood as a retrieval cue
*Memories can also be context dependent:
(Forget you are out of Salami until you enter kitchen)
Priming: an unconscious process that activates
Memories stored
associations in a semantic network.
according to meaning
Bed
Yawn
Drowsy
Warm Milk
Pillow
Sleep
Sheets
Snoring
Was Dream one of the words?
Red
Fire truck
Apple
Iconic Memory
Echoic Memory
A brief picture of a
scene lasting less than
a second
A brief memory of
sounds just heard
lasting 3-4 seconds
*Sensory Memory consists of EVERYTHING we
see & hear (Too much to remember!)


Where information is held for 20-30 Seconds
Either converted to long-term memory or
forgotten.
George Miller’s “Magical
number 7 plus or minus 2short-term memory’s
capacity is limited to 7 items
give or take 2.
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Age diminishes encoding efficiency.
We are more likely to forget things that are
not personally meaningful to us. (NOTES)
Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus):Course of
forgetting initially rapid and then levels off.
If you’re going to forget
it, you’ve probably
forgotten it before you
left the classroom!
Proactive
Interference
Previous, old information
affects, or interferes, with
trying to remember new
information.
(Ex. can’t remember your NEW
locker combination because
you keep dialing old one)
Retroactive
Interference
Recently learned new
information affects, or
interferes, with remembering
old information.
(Ex. can’t remember your OLD
class schedule because of new
class schedule)