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Mesoscale Bulk Electronics Beyond the MOSFET • Mesoscale: – – – – An intermediate scale, on the order of ~10 nm, Materials have some properties of bulk material, But surface effects are important, And more quantum phenomena become important • Bulk: – Materials & structures fabricated using bulk processes, w/o atomic precision • Electronics: – Electron states are used for primary informationprocessing operations • not photons (optical), or whole atoms (mechanical) What happens @ mesoscale? • MOSFET scaling hampered by quantization of: – charge: • becomes important @ L 10 nm in all materials – energy levels: • important in semiconductors @ L 10 nm • Can alternative device operating principles exploit these quantization effects rather than be hampered by them? • Some approaches: – Single-electron transistors – Quantum wells / wires / dots, quantum-dot CAs – Resonant tunneling diodes / transistors “Coulomb blockade effect” SET • Based on charge quantization • # of energy levels may not be noticeably quantized • Comprised of an island of (typically) metal surrounded by insulator. • Narrow tunnel junctions to transistor source/drain - 5-10 nm typical • Gate controls # of electrons that may occupy island – within precision of 1, out of millions Quantum Wells/Wires/Dots • Usually use semiconductor material. • Electron position is narrowly confined in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions, respectively. • E between distinct momentum states becomes large • In quantum dots, total # of mobile electrons may be as small as 1! • Non-transistorlike quantum-dot logics: – Most notably, quantum dot “cellular automata” by Notre Dame group Quantized Energy Levels • The narrower the space, – the smaller the gap between normal modes #n and #n+1 – the larger the frequency & energy gap between those modes • More confined spaces have wider /3, 3E energy gaps between their distinct /2, 2E momentum states. , E Resonant Tunneling Diodes • Usually based on quantum wells or wires – 1-2 effectively “classical” degrees of freedom Source Drain Island (narrow bandgap) Tunnel barriers (wide bandgap) Electron tunnels through barrier Quantized momentum state Electron flow Occupied states in conduction band Energy Unoccupied states Resonant Tunneling Transistors • Like RTDs, but an adjacent gate electrode helps adjust the energy levels in the island Gate Source Drain Future Semiconductor Structures • • • • • • • • SOI (Silicon-on-Insulator) Band-engineered transistors Vertical transistors FinFETs (Chenming Hu group @ Berkeley) Double-gate transistors (e.g. Philip Wong IBM) Multi-layer chips (Lee @ Stanford) “Quantum FET” analysis (Merkle ‘93) atom-width wires (need ref) Go through ITRS presentation Nanoelectronics Technologies • Scaled MOSFET structures - prev. slide • Quantum wells/wires/dots - covered last time – quantum dot cellular automata - go thru website • Various “single-electron” devices - today • “Spintronics” - electron (&/or nuclear?) spin based electronics- today • Molecular electronics - today or Friday Quantum Dot Cellular Automata • Wires: x vs +, fan-out, wire-crossing • Speed: 2 ps/cell – compare: light can go 0.6 mm in 2 ps – ordinary electronic signals ~0.3 mm – MOSFET gate delay according to ITRS ‘99: • 11 ps in ‘99, 5.7 in ‘05, 2.4 in ‘14 • Gates: inverters, majority gates, full adder • Paradigms: – ground state computing – clocked QCA pipelining (adiabatic, reversible) • Molecular version: 20 fs/cell (100x smaller) Spintronics UF contacts: Arthur Hebard, Jeff Krause • Cf. Das Sarma group at UF • Info written into spin orientation of electrons – persists for nanoseconds in conduction e’s – compare ~10 fs lifetime for momentum decay • Spin control, propagation along wires, selection, & detection • Datta-Das and Johnson spin-based transistors • Potential medium for quantum computation Molecular Electronics • Tour wires • Molecular switches • Carbon nanotube devices Helical Logic • Proposal by Merkle & Drexler ‘96 • Do w. conductors & insulators only! See plastic transparencies, readings for details – no fancy semiconductors, superconductors, or tunnel junctions needed... • The wires are the devices! – Uses simple Coulombic repulsion between electrons to do logic • Scalable to single electrons & atom-wide wires! • Externally clocked... – by rotation of CPU within a fixed electrostatic field • Can be used reversibly… 10-27 J, 1K, 10 GHz! HL: Overall Physical Structure • Consider a cylinder of sparse (high-permissivity) insulating material (e.g., air), containing embedded helical coils of cold conductive or semiconductive wire, rotating on its axis in a static, flat electric field (or, unmoving in a rotating field). • An excess of conduction electrons will be attracted to regions on wire closest to + field direction. • These electron packets follow the field along as it rotates relative to the cylinder. • Next slide: Logic! Switch gate operation: 1 of 3 Data wire Condition wire Switch gate operation: 2 of 3 Data wire Coulombic repulsion Condition wire Switch gate operation: 3 of 3 Data wire Condition wire Nano-mechanical logics See plastic transparencies, readings for details • First proposed by Drexler, 1992 (& earlier) – Typically, very low leakage! • due to high energy barriers (mechanical rigidity) in interactions involving bonded atoms, vs. just electrons – Pretty fast due to small size, but probably... • ~1000’s × slower than molecular electronics might be – basically, because atoms are ~1000’s × heavier than electrons • Drexler’s logic of rods, cams, springs – Molecular scale components • Covalently bonded, atomically precise • Merkle’s (1993) “buckling” logic – No sliding-contact interfaces – Scalable from macroscale to mesoscale Also see Smith’s planar mechanical logics Molecular Electronics • Tour wires • Various molecular switches • Various carbon nanotube devices See plastic transparencies, readings for details • Potential problem areas: – High resistance of existing molecular devices. – Maintaining thermal reliability in face of low node capacitances and voltages. – High leakage currents, due to tunneling or thermal excitation over small, narrow barriers. Biochemical computing • Selected points on DNA computing: – Adleman’s experiment – Cyclic Mixture Mutagenesis • Reversible DNA Turing Machines See readings for details – Seeman’s self-assembling structures – Winfree’s tile self-assembly logics • DNA computing has many disadvantages: – High cost of materials – Slowness of diffusive molecular interactions – Slowness/cost/unreliability of lab steps • Prob. won’t ever be a cost-effective computing paradigm (except maybe for in vivo apps) Optical computing • Not viable at the nanoscale anytime soon! – Due to entropy density issues mentioned earlier: • High enough info. flux requires extremely energetic photons, with too-high effective temperatures • Or, waveguides considerably smaller than photon wavelengths - EMF theory suggests: Impossible! • All-optical computing requires nonlinear interactions, between photons & materials. • Optics (or more generally, EMF waves) will remain useful for communications, but only: – in contexts where extreme bandwidth density is not required (or extreme temperatures can be tolerated)