Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
CHAPTER 16. BEHAVIORAL PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT I. PURPOSE AND TEACHING OBJECTIVES To present the various theories of learning giving special attention to cognitive, behavioristic, and social cognitive approaches; to explain the principles of reinforcement and punishment; to analyze organizational reward systems giving special attention to monetary and nonfinancial rewards; and finally, to give the steps and results of behavioral management. II. TEACHING NOTES AND REVIEW OUTLINE A. A perfect theory of learning would have to be able to explain all aspects of learning (how, when and why), have universal application, and predict and control learning situations. NOTES: B. Behavioristic theories of learning are widely recognized and researched. The classical behaviorists, such as Pavlov and Watson, attribute learning to the connection between stimulus and response (S-R). The operant behaviorists, such as Skinner, are concerned more with the role that consequences play in learning, that is, the response-stimulus connection (R-S). NOTES: C. Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment measured the amount of saliva secreted by a dog under several conditions. Using meat powder (unconditioned stimulus), Pavlov noticed a great amount of saliva (unconditioned response) when the meat was presented to the dog. Pavlov next accompanied the meat with the ringing of a bell. 158 After several trials the dog salivated (conditioned response) to the bell alone (conditioned stimulus). NOTES: D. Operant conditioning is concerned with learning that occurs as a consequence of behavior. The stimulus situation, unlike classical conditioning, serves as a cue to emit a behavior. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only after the correct response is given. Behavior is a function of its consequences. NOTES: E. A pioneering cognitive theorist, Edward Tolman felt that learning consisted of relationships between cognitive environmental cues and expectations. He said that reinforcement is not a precondition for learning to take place. This could be thought of as a stimulus-stimulus connection (S-S). 1. Early industrial training programs attempted to strengthen the relationship between cognitive cues and worker expectations. 2. Tolman’s work is the forerunner of some of the notions of modern social learning theory. 3. The major thrust of the cognitive theories is concerned with purposefulness of human behavior. 4. Today, cognitive sciences focus more on the structures and processes of human competence (e.g., memory and information processing) rather than on the acquisition and transition processes of learning theory explanations. NOTES: 159 F. Social learning and social cognitive theory combine and integrate both behavioristic and cognitive concepts and emphasizes the interaction of cognitions, environment and the behavior itself. There is a triangular reciprocal interaction. Social learning theory is a behavioral theory but it goes beyond classical and operant conditioning. Social learning theory posits that learning can take place via modeling and self-control processes. 1. Modeling involves observational learning. 2. Bandura demonstrates that modeling takes place in two steps: a. The person observes how others act and acquires a mental picture of the act and its consequences. b. The person acts out the behavior and responses to the received consequences: if they are positive, the act will tend to be repeated. If they are negative, the act will tend to not be repeated. 3. Social cognitive theory extends learning and/or modifying behavior by giving more attention to the self-regulatory processes. Social cognitive theory identifies five capabilities that people use to initiate, regulate and sustain their own behavior: a. b. c. d. e. symbolizing; forethought; vicarious/modeling learning; self-regulation; and self-reflection. 4. Self-efficacy is more fully discussed in Chapter 9. People who believe they can perform well on a task (high self-efficacy) do better than those who think they will fail (low self-efficacy). Efficacy is a state which can be trained and developed. Research indicates a strong relationship between self-efficacy and work-related performance. NOTES: G. Reinforcement may be the most important and widely recognized principle of learning. Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that reinforcing consequences will increase the strength and frequency of behavior, and undesirable consequences will decrease the strength and frequency of behavior. 160 1. Reinforcement can be distinguished from reward, since reinforcement is operationally defined as anything that increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement. A reward is simply something that the person who presents it deems to be desirable. NOTES: H. Reinforcement (both positive and negative) and punishment play a central role in the learning process. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative, but both strengthen the response and increase the probability of repetition; punishment weakens behavior and decreases the frequency of occurrence. 1. Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of a desirable consequence. 2. Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the withdrawal of an undesirable consequence. 3. Punishment weakens and decreases subsequent behavior by either the application of an undesirable consequence or the withdrawal of a desirable consequence that is normally in the person’s environment before the undesirable behavior occurs. a. Punishment tends to have only a temporary impact and can cause many undesirable side effects such as hate and revenge. To minimize problems associated with punishment a few guidelines can be followed: -Provide an acceptable alternative to the behavior that is being punished. -Administer the punishment closely following the undesirable behavior. -Remember that there is also an effect on the relevant others whom are observing the punishment. b. Managers should attempt to reinforce instead of punish when possible. The use of reinforcement is usually more effective for increasing desirable behavior than the use of punishment is for decreasing undesirable behavior because reinforcement has more of a lasting impact and has no bad side effects. 161 4. Critiques of reinforcement theory: some researchers have suggested that external consequences (rewards) have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation. A recent meta-analysis, however, indicate that the design of programs, not the underlying theory of reinforcement, cause problems. NOTES: I. There are two major classes of rewards: monetary and nonfinancial. 1. Money is a complex potential reinforcer (as further discussed in Chapter 5). Recent studies indicated that pay increases alone do little or nothing to increase performance. However, in addition to its economic value, money has tremendous symbolic meaning. 2. In order for money to be an effective reinforcer, it must be administered contingently on the exhibition of critical performance behavior. 3. Nonfinancial rewards may or may not cost the organization. Social recognition and attention, job design, and objective performance feedback categories of nonfinancial rewards do not cost the organization anything and may be even more powerful than the monetary and cost-based nonfinancial rewards. For example, objective performance feedback, which is positive, immediate, graphic and specific (PIGS), enhances individual performance. However, the effectiveness of feedback may depend on the nature of the information and the task, the source, and individual differences among the recipients of the feedback. NOTES: J. Organizational behavior modification (O.B. Mod.) is a behavioral approach to the management of human resources for performance improvement and can be portrayed as a five-step problem solving model. 1. Step one involves the identification of critical behaviors. These behaviors are those that make a significant impact on performance — the 5-10 percent of the 162 behaviors that account for up to 70-80 percent of the performance. Critical behaviors may be identified by a person(s) closest to the job, like the immediate supervisor or the job holder. Another approach would be to conduct a systematic behavioral audit which involves job analysis and uses specialists. For a behavior to be identified as a critical behavior it must be able to be measured and it must have a direct impact on performance. 2. The next step involves measuring the behaviors. A baseline frequency is obtained by counting the number of times the behavior occurs under existing conditions (the so-called baseline). Measurement also occurs after the intervention as well to note changes occurring because of the intervention. 3. After identification and measurement of the behaviors, a functional analysis is performed (A-B-C). A is the antecedent cue, B is the behavior, and C is the contingent consequence. Both the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that maintain and reinforce the behavior must be identified before an effective intervention can be designed. The functional analysis often reveals that there are many competing contingencies for behavior. Thus, it is important to identify only the contingent consequences (those that the identified and measured behaviors depend upon). 4. The goal of the intervention strategy is to strengthen and accelerate functional performance behaviors and/or weaken and decelerate dysfunctional behaviors. There are two major strategies: a. Positive reinforcement. This represents a form of positive control of behavior; it is more effective and long lasting than negative control. This involves the application of a positive consequence following functional performance behavior. b. Punishment/positive reinforcement. Punishment can be used to weaken and decelerate dysfunctional behaviors. Importantly, however, punishment should never be used alone but always be combined with positive reinforcement. Reasons for this include the fact that punished behavior tends to be only temporarily suppressed, that it may have a disastrous side effect, and it is difficult for a supervisor to switch roles from punisher to positive reinforcer. 5. The last step of O.B. Mod. or behavior management involves a systematic evaluation of performance improvement. There are four levels of evaluation: a. The reaction level refers to whether people administering and experiencing the behavioral management approach like it. Positive reactions help ensure organizational support, provide information for future programs, and provide useful comparative data between units and across time. b. The second level of evaluation is learning. This helps answer the question of whether people using behavioral management know why they are using it. c. The third level is aimed at behavioral change; that is, are the performancerelated behaviors actually changing? 163 d. The fourth level is performance improvement which is the overriding purpose of behavioral management. This step is important, since behavioral change may not necessarily reflect performance improvement. NOTES: K. A number of studies have assessed the application of behavioral techniques on improving performance in a variety of areas. A meta-analysis by Stajkovic and Luthans reported in the summer 1997 issue of the Academy of Management Journal found an average 17 percent increase in performance when using O. B. Mod. The results are generally supportive in the following areas: 1. 2. 3. 4. Employee productivity/performance improvement Absenteeism and tardiness Safety and accident prevention Sales performance NOTES: L. Wrap-Up: Learning is a major psychological process that has been largely neglected in organizational behavior. However, the effective administration of reinforcement and punishment may be one of the most critical challenges facing modern human resource management. O.B. Mod. or behavioral performance management represents an applied, behavioral approach to human resource management rather than just an internal, cognitively-based motivational approach. Behavioral performance management is, however, only one approach to human resource management. The research and real-world applications of behavioral performance management have been very supportive of its effectiveness in increasing the quality and quantity of employee performance. NOTES: 164 III. HINTS FOR INTERNET EXERCISE: Applying Behavior Management Principles to Athletic Performance 1. What specific reinforcers drive the behavior and resulting performance of the athletes in the sport you chose? A review of the PGA site indicates top golfers receive financial rewards (prize money, endorsements, etc), public recognition (celebrity and fame), and feedback from the game itself (that feeling when the golfer knows he is playing well) and even after every shot. 2. How might the reinforcers be different for college versus professional athletes? College athletes can also be reinforced via the same methods as pro athletes (e.g., scholarships, popularity on campus, etc.) although the reinforcers that impact college athletes may also be based on delayed gratification (e.g., hopes of turning pro in the future to gain more direct financial rewards). 3. How could a coach effectively use behavioral management? Give some specific examples by sport. A coach of any sport could use positive reinforcement to encourage attendance at practice, proper execution of drills, and positive displays of leadership and teamwork. IV. STUDENT INVOLVEMENT EXERCISES 1. Assign the students (as individuals or groups) to discuss the following: Learning Theory: Cognitive vs. Behavioristic Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement vs. Punishment Have them define, discuss and give practical examples and implications to HRM of their assigned learning theory/concepts. 2. Have two teams formally debate the following: Money vs. Social Recognition for Behavioral Performance Management Have the teams present examples and get into a spirited debate with opening statements and at least one rebuttal and then a closing statement. Pick the winner for a small prize or bonus points. 3. Have the students apply the five step O.B. Mod. model. After reading and understanding the chapter, have each student identify a behavior of someone (e.g., a roommate, spouse, child, or preferably someone who works for them) that they would like to change. Have them measure it (you may want to have them show evidence of the charting), functionally analyze it, and try an intervention (preferably 165 a simple feedback and/or social recognition strategy to accelerate a desirable behavior). The evaluation could be written-up in a brief report and/or discussed in class at a later date. V. HINTS FOR CASE DISCUSSION Real Case: Rewarding Big Time for Failure 1. What is your reaction to these severance packages? Can you justify them? This is a personal reaction, but they seem to be very counter to what reinforcement theory would suggest. 2. How do these examples fit with reinforcement theory and behavioral management discussed in this chapter? The instances described in this case illustrate the use of positive reinforcement for an undesired outcome, which will serve to strengthen the frequency of the undesired outcome (i.e., the CEO who receives a huge severance check after performing poorly may repeat the same pattern of poor behavior in his next position). In these instances, pay is not contingent upon successful performance. 3. Using the O.B. Mod. model as a point of reference, what would you propose to be a fair contract for a CEO of a major corporation? Is this realistic at this level of management? To use O.B. Mod., it would be necessary to identify critical CEO behaviors (e.g., developing strategic vision, inspiring others to achieve that vision) and provide reinforcers to strengthen the frequencies of those desired critical behaviors. Tasks at the CEO level are more complex, and more difficult to observe and measure. The underlying theory of O.B. Mod. would still be valid, just more difficult to practically apply. Organizational Behavior Case: Contrasting Styles This case shows the impact that various learning processes and principles can have on leadership or supervisory styles. 1. Both of these supervisors have similar backgrounds. On the basis of learning theory, how can you explain their opposite approaches to handling people? Each supervisor has probably been reinforced for their different approaches to management. One has seen the immediate affect of negative control through the use of punishment and negative reinforcement while the other, Jane, has seen the desirable consequences of her own behaviors under a positive, reward-centered work environment. 2. What are some of the examples of punishment, positive reinforcement, and negative reinforcement found in this case? If Jane is using a reinforcement approach, how do you 166 explain this statement, “I don’t believe in that human relations stuff of being nice to workers.” Henry: Coming down hard on them whenever they make a mistake (punishment), giving them heck (punishment). Jane: Recognition and attention when workers do a good job (reinforcement), pointing out mistakes and then subsequent reinforcement when they do things correctly (punishment/positive reinforcement). Jane is using an intermittent schedule of reinforcement based on the fact that she does not give attention to everyone all the time, but tries to “get around to people” once in a while. Jane can be correct in the quote: The human relations approach should not be equated with a reinforcement approach. Contingent reinforcement for desirable behavior is quite different from noncontingently being nice to people. 3. How do you explain the performance, turnover, and quality results in these two sections of the production department? The higher turnover, etc. in Henry’s department is a function of the use of a negatively controlled environment not a positive reinforcement centered environment as is the case with Jane. Henry’s approach may get short-term productivity results but the human costs (turnover) and quality will probably suffer. Organizational Behavior Case: Volunteers Can’t Be Punished This case is an example of the problems in volunteer organizations. Volunteers are different and the organization cannot rely upon punishment-centered approaches. This case is true and is not uncommon in volunteer organizations. 1. What advice would you give Jenette? In terms of reinforcement theory, explain what is happening here and what Jenette needs to do to get the meetings started on time. Jenette should reinforce those who get to the meetings on time by starting the meeting on time. Group members that did get to the meeting on time, initially, were punished when they had to wait for other members. By starting the meeting on time, this problem could be averted. 2. What learning theories (operant, cognitive, and/or social) could be applied to Jenette’s efforts to teach her volunteers the impact of new laws and changes in state and federal policies and procedures? This is designed as an open ended discussion question and each of the theories can be used to teach her people. 167 3. How could someone like Jenette use modeling to train her staff to do a more effective job? Through the use of behavioral modeling, Jenette could set an example of effective management for her work staff or she could follow the steps for a modeling training strategy. Organizational Behavior Case: Up the Piece Rate This case is an example of the difficulties that sometimes occur when a supervisor uses O.B. Mod. In this case, a successful O.B. Mod. program is threatened by upper level management raising the incentive rates on workers that have increased their performance under an O.B. Mod. program. 1. Do you think Larry’s boss, the department head, attended the O.B. Mod. program? Analyze the department head’s action in terms of O.B. Mod. No, he/she obviously does not understand O.B. Mod. principles. The incentive change will lead to a punishing situation for the employees for increasing performance. Subsequent behaviors will be directed toward not increasing performance. 2. What do you think Larry’s reaction will be now and in the future? How do you think Larry’s people will react? Both Larry and his people have not been reinforced for performance improvements. One could probably expect to see a little performance improvement in the future. 3. Given the 10 percent increase in standards, is there any way that Larry could still use the O.B. Mod. approach with his people? With his boss? How? Yes, he could bargain with his boss to share productivity increases. Larry could reinforce his employees with nonmonetary reinforcements for performance improvements, maybe with time off, etc. He could reinforce (with praise, feedback and attention) the behaviors of his boss that he wants increased. Organizational Behavior Case: A Tardiness Problem This case attempts to apply O.B. Mod. to a specific problem area. 1. Trace through the five steps in the O.B. Mod. model to show how it could be applied to this tardiness problem. Make sure you are specific in identifying the critical performance behaviors and the antecedents and consequences of the functional analysis. Step One: Identify critical behavior; late start of job (operationally define as x number of minutes late or actually working). 168 Step Two: Measure frequency of late starts per day. Step Three: Functional analysis; antecedents such as transportation problems, school, children, etc.; consequences such as escape for a few moments from a dull and boring job or socializing with friends, etc. Step Four: Intervention strategy; attention and specific charted feedback for starting on time (this is an example where there are multiple solutions). Step Five: Evaluate; has the intervention led to a reduction in the number of late starts. If tardiness has indeed been reduced, has it led to an increase in performance? 2. Do you think the approach you have suggested in your answer will really work? Why or why not? This is a discussion question, no one correct answer. 169