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37
CHAPTER
The Cold War Begins, 1945–1952
The next two chapters present the story of the great postwar “baby boom” generation (i.e., people born between 1945 and 1960). This
generation was very much influenced and conditioned by the generally strong economy and by the major social and cultural changes
described here. Perhaps less directly, their world was molded by the nuclear arms race and the perilous “Cold War” with the Soviet
Union.
1. Unit Introduction (pp. 856–857) The authors here summarize the formative forces for the generation born after
World War II. Explain what they mean in the first paragraph when they say that the “two themes of promise and
menace mingled uneasily throughout the nearly five decades of the Cold War era… .” *** What is the difference
between “Russia” and the “Soviet Union”?
(1) Promise:
(2) Menace:
(3) “Russia”/“Soviet Union”:
2. Adjustment to Peacetime (pp. 858–860) The authors describe the shock to both production and price levels as the
economy converted back from emergency wartime production and had to absorb large numbers of returning soldiers.
Postwar Republican efforts to slow down the New Deal–inspired march of unionization came to a head in 1947 with
the passage of the __________ - ______________ Act restricting union activities. Congress passed the “GI Bill of
___________,” which helped educate some _____ million veterans and lent them money through the
___________________ Administration (VA) so they could settle down in their own houses. *** Did the government
pass this law primarily because it felt an obligation to those who had fought the war? If not, what other motivations
might have been involved? The authors say that this act produced big economic benefits for the country. Do you think
that taxpayers should pay for free higher education as they do in some other countries?
(1) Motivation:
(2) Free higher education:
3. Postwar Economic Boom (pp. 860–864) The authors list several causes of the sustained economic boom that lasted
basically from 1950 to 1970. What do they mean by the following factors?
(1) World War II itself:
(2) “Permanent war economy” (charts, p. 861):
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(3) Cheap energy:
(4) Productivity gains:
(5) “Sunbelt” and mobility:
4. Suburbs and Baby Boom (pp. 864-866, 868–869)
a. A depression and war-weary middle-class population happily moved to the suburbs and began making babies in the
postwar years. As you read the section on “The Suburbanites,” list some of the pros and cons of the lifestyle
described.
(1) Pros:
(2) Cons:
b. The authors refer to the “baby boom” from 1945 to 1960 as a “pig passing through a python.” This caused a boom
in elementary school construction in the 1950s, then rock music in the 1960s and 1970s. The baby boom generation is
now firmly in middle age. *** If you had some extra cash, what types of businesses might you invest in today that
will benefit from the “Baby Boom Bulge” over the next twenty years?
5. Harry S Truman (pp. 866–867) In this short section, the authors pass judgment on Truman, a man from a relatively
plain Missouri background whose fate it was to be thrust into the presidency at a time in which some momentous
decisions had to be made. *** From what they say here, do you guess that the authors will be positive or negative on
Truman’s performance in office? Why? What clues do they give?
6. Yalta Sets the Stage (pp. 867, 870) In the absence of a formal peace conference (like Versailles after World War I),
the wartime meeting at the Russian resort of Yalta in February 19_____ among Roosevelt, ___________________,
and ___________________ takes on huge importance. At Yalta, a new _______________ Nations organization was
agreed upon. Stalin promised free postwar elections for Eastern European countries such as __________, but Russian
forces were occupying these countries on their march toward Berlin and there was little the West could do to keep
Stalin from eventually breaking this promise. In return for a share of the goodies at the peace table, Stalin promised to
help the United States defeat Japan within _____ months of the final victory over Germany. (Remember from the
last chapter the argument of some that the prospect of Russia thus enhancing its postwar position in Asia MAY
have influenced the American decision to drop the A-bomb when it did.)
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7. U.S. vs. USSR (pp. 870–871) List a few of the ways that the authors, in their even-handed analysis, say that both the
differences and similarities between the United States and the USSR led to an almost inevitable conflict.
(1) Differences and suspicions:
(2) Similarities:
8. Cold War Begins (pp. 871–879)
a. A new postwar international framework, this time with full U.S. participation, was established when the
International ____________________ Fund (IMF) and the ___________ Bank were established at the
_________________ Woods Conference in 1944. Replacing the old League, a new _______________ Nations was
established in San Francisco a year later. The U.N. had a number of successes but missed a golden opportunity to
control the massive dangers of atomic power when the _________________ Plan was never approved. Twenty-two
top Nazis were tried and convicted at ________________ after the war. *** If war involves mass killing by
definition, do you think it’s fair to hold trials for “war crimes”? If so, can you think of any acts by the United States
during its various wars that might justify prosecution?
b. After the war, both Germany and its capital _________ were each divided into four supposedly temporary “zones
of occupation” to be administered by the “Big Four”—the United States, the USSR, ______________, and
_______________. These evolved into two separate countries, _________ Germany, tied to the Soviets, and
____________ Germany, tied to the western powers. In 1948, Stalin imposed a blockade, trying to starve the western
powers out of their sectors of Berlin, located deep inside the eastern sector. The United States responded with a
gigantic ________________ designed to keep the Berlin supply line open. Stalin finally called off the blockade in
May 19___. By 1947, the broad strategy of “containing” Soviet expansionism, first developed by Soviet specialist
George F. ___________, had become accepted in America. Following potential communist takeovers in Greece and
________________, this strategy became formalized in what came to be known as the ________________ Doctrine,
an open-ended American commitment to support “free peoples” resisting communist takeovers. *** What do you see
as the strengths as well as the potential dangers of this American “holy-war” against communism?
(1) Strengths:
(2) Potential dangers:
c. To keep communism out of Western Europe, Truman won approval in 1948 for the ______________ Plan, which
would eventually funnel $_____ billion into the successful reconstruction of Western Europe. It would also set the
stage for the eventual creation of the European ___________________ (EC) which is now unifying European
countries. In 1947, the National _____________ Act reorganized and unified the military in the face of the Soviet
challenge and created a new National _____________ Council (NSC) and Central _________________ Agency
(CIA). In a major break with the nation’s isolationist past, Congress in 1949 approved joining the North
______________ ______________ Organization (NATO), a defensive alliance of western European nations.
Japanese reconstruction proceeded quickly and efficiently under the command of U.S. General Douglas
______________ and with the cooperation of the Japanese. In China, however, Communist forces under Mao
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____________ in 1949 forced the Nationalist government under Generalissimo Jiang __________ to leave the
mainland and set up on the island of ___________. This development, together with the first Soviet explosion of an
___________ bomb in 1949, further heightened American anxieties. A massive and fantastically dangerous nuclear
arms race ensued, beginning with the first explosion of an American ______________ bomb in 1952.
9. Cold War at Home (pp. 879–883)
a. There is now no doubt that the Soviets did support a variety of “front” organizations in the United States (as well as
the open American Communist Party) and had a few spies planted within U.S. agencies. However, the frantic antiCommunist hysteria of the late 1940s and early 1950s was largely reprehensible. _________________ oaths were
required of teachers and government employees, and many good careers were ruined. Future president Richard M.
______________ came to prominence as a lowly congressman when he successfully pursued diplomat Alger
__________. Worst of all was the intimidation of Senator Joseph R. _____________, who started by accusing State
Department employees of Red ties and expanded from there. This hysterical period quieted down a bit after the 1953
execution of Julius and Ethel ______________ on charges of delivering atomic secrets to the Soviets. *** What
actions, if any, by people working to change or overthrow the U.S. government do you think should be illegal?
b. The 1948 election pitted the incumbent Democratic President ___________ against Republican New York
Governor Thomas E. _______________. Truman’s party was divided on the right by ultraconservative J. Strom
_________________ and on the left by Henry A. ________________. Though apparently the loser, Truman’s feisty
style won him another term.
10. Korea (pp. 883–885)
a. This major war, which killed as many Americans as Vietnam, gets only a two-page treatment here. Remember the
concessions given to Stalin at Yalta in return for his agreement to help with the final defeat of Japan. As a result of
this, Russia occupied the northern half of the Korean peninsula and the United States the southern half. Two separate
antagonistic countries evolved. In June of 1950, the North Koreans crossed the ____th parallel in an attempt to defeat
the South and unify the country. Why do the authors say on p. 883 that this invasion provided proof to Truman of the
fundamental premise of the “containment doctrine”?
b. Code-named “______-68,” the administration used this crisis as an excuse for a massive military buildup.
Implementing his “containment” policy, Truman obtained a U.N. Security Council resolution (in the absence of the
Soviet representative) condemning the invasion. He then sent in U.S. forces under General ___________________.
These forces made a surprise invasion behind enemy lines at ____________ in September 1950, and drove north to
the Chinese border, whereupon Chinese troops entered the war, crossing the ________ River and forcing the
Americans back to a long stalemate around the 38th parallel dividing line. Because General ________________
publicly demanded the right to widen the war by attacking parts of China, he was removed from office by President
__________________ in 1951. *** Do you agree with MacArthur that he was being asked to fight a war “with one
hand tied behind his back”? Do you agree with Truman that, despite his popularity and success, MacArthur should
have been removed from command? Why or why not?
(1) MacArthur’s complaint:
(2) MacArthur’s removal:
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CHAPTER 37 TERM SHEET
The Cold War Begins
Pages 858–860
Gross national product (GNP)
Taft-Hartley Act (1947)
Employment Act (1946)
Council of Economic Advisers
GI Bill of Rights (1944)
VA loans
Pages 860–864
Dr. Benjamin Spock
“Sunbelt”
Pages 864–866, 868–869
Suburbs
Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
“Levittown”
“White flight”
“Baby boom”
Pages 866–867
Harry S Truman
Pages 867, 870
Yalta Conference (February 1945)
“Big Three”
Pages 871–879
Bretton Woods (1944)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
IBRD (World Bank)
United Nations (1945)
Security Council
Big five powers
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Baruch Plan
Nuremberg trials (1945–1946)
Hermann Goering
German occupation zones
“Iron curtain”
Berlin blockade (1948)
Berlin airlift (1948–1949)
“Containment” doctrine
George F. Kennan
Truman Doctrine (1947)
European Community (EC)
Marshall Plan (1947)
Recognition of Israel (1948)
National Security Act (1947)
Pentagon
NSC
CIA
“Voice of America” (1948)
Selective service system (1948)
NATO (1949)
Japanese occupation
Gen. Douglas MacArthur
Jiang Jieshi
Mao Zedong
Communist China (1949)
Dean Acheson
Soviet A-bomb (1949)
H-bomb
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Pages 879–883
Loyalty oaths
House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC)
Richard M. Nixon
Alger Hiss (1948)
Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy
McCarran Internal Security Bill (1950)
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
1948 election
Thomas E. Dewey
Strom Thurmond
Henry A. Wallace
Truman’s “Point Four” Program
“Fair Deal” Program
Pages 883–885
Korea/38th parallel
North Korean attack (1950)
NSC-68
U.N. “police action”
MacArthur’s Inchon landing (1950)
Yalu River
MacArthur firing (1951)
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38
CHAPTER
The Eisenhower Era, 1952–1960
1. Ike, Nixon, and Korea (pp. 887–890)
a. In 1952, grandfatherly war-hero General Dwight D. __________________ and his anticommunist running mate
Richard M. ____________ ran on the __________________ Party ticket and defeated Democrat Adlai E.
________________. Nixon’s famous “____________ speech” illustrates the advent of television as a potent force in
politics. *** What do you see as the pros and cons of television in the democratic political process?
(1) Pros:
(2) Cons:
b. Eisenhower’s first priority was to end the war in ___________. However, it wasn’t until mid-19____ that an
armistice was finally signed ending that three-year conflict, which had killed some ____________ Americans—
almost the same number who would eventually die in Vietnam. This settlement returned the dividing line between
North and South Korea to its original ____ parallel—where it remains today.
2. McCarthy’s “Witch-Hunt” (pp. 890–891)
a. To understand the Cold War and anticommunist sentiments, it’s important to review a few terms. The United States
has basically a “capitalist” economic system and a “democratic” political system. “Communists” believe in a
“socialist” economic system with a political system dominated by one party that supposedly best represents the will of
the common worker. To review these conceptual differences, fill in the chart below:
Enter “G” for government, “I” for individuals or corporations, or “C” for Communist Party
Democratic
Capitalism
Communistic
Socialism
(1) Who owns the “means of production”?
_________
_________
(2) Who makes most significant economic decisions?
_________
_________
(3) Who chooses the government leaders?
_________
_________
(As you can see, these economic and political systems are diametrically opposed in most important respects. The real
conflict, though, comes from the fact that Americans suspected the USSR—with a certain amount of justification—of
trying, often by underhanded means, to export its system worldwide. Of course, the Soviets, in turn, suspected—again
with some justification—that the Americans were also committed to exporting their system globally.)
b. Joseph R. McCarthy was a little known junior senator from ______________ when, in 19____, he began holding
hearings based on charges never proven that there were a large number of communists in the _________ Department.
McCarthy eventually overextended himself in 1954 when, through the power of television, it became clear that his
charges of communism in the United States _________ had no basis in fact. Is it legal or illegal in the United States to
be a “communist” or “communist sympathizer?” *** If it’s not illegal, how could McCarthy ruin a person’s career
just by naming a person and bringing that person before his committee?
(1) Legality:
(2) Source of McCarthy’s power:
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3. Early Civil Rights Movement (pp. 891–897)
a. The first four paragraphs of this section paint a brief but chilling picture of life in the segregated south. *** What
was your reaction after reading these paragraphs? What, if anything, surprised you in this account?
b. Look over the section on “The Great African-American Migration” to the cities of the North and the West during
and after the World War II. What does NAACP leader Walter White mean when he says that the war “immeasurably
magnified the Negro’s awareness of the disparity between the American profession and practice of democracy”?
c. The 1955–1956 bus boycott in __________________, Alabama, sparked by the refusal of Rosa _____________ to
sit in the back of the bus, was led by a young, then unknown local minister named ______________ ______________
__________, Jr. With little support from either the executive or the legislative branches of government, the NAACP
switched its strategy for forcing change in the South to the _____________ branch. In the landmark 19____ case of
_______________ v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Earl
_________________, finally overturned the “separate but _____________” concept allowed by the 1896
______________ v. Ferguson ruling. The court ruled that separate facilities in public schools were “inherently
unequal” (and thus in violation of the “Equal Protection of the Laws” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment) and that
the country’s public schools must be desegregated “with all deliberate speed.” Massive resistance developed in the
Deep South to the implementation of this ruling. *** If—theoretically—separate facilities are the same for both races,
what was the logic of the Court in declaring them “inherently unequal”?
d. Eisenhower refused to lead on civil rights matters, but in 19____ he was forced to act when Governor Orval
____________ of ____________________ moved to prevent nine black students from entering ______________
High School in ____________ Rock. Eisenhower’s decision to enforce a Supreme Court ruling with which he
disagreed brought about the first intervention of federal troops in southern affairs since Reconstruction. In 1957,
Martin Luther King, Jr., followed up his Montgomery success by organizing the _______________
_______________ _________________ __________________ (“SCLC”). In 1960 a grassroots, student-led
“_____________” movement was launched at a lunch counter in ________________, North Carolina. This
movement spawned a new organization called the ______________ ____________________ ________________
_______________ (“SNCC”). Compare and contrast these two major civil rights organizations.
(1) SLCC:
(2) SNCC:
4. Ike at Home (pp. 897–899) Eisenhower modified some New Deal programs but left the big ones alone. He even
launched the massive _______________ highway system. What do the authors say were some of the effects, pro and
con, of this system that we take for granted today?
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5. Dulles and Cold War Policy (pp. 899–902)
a. What was the concept of “massive retaliation” favored by Secretary of State __________ ______________ Dulles?
*** What do you think of this policy as a deterrent to potential Soviet aggression?
(1) Concept of “massive retaliation”:
(2) Your view:
b. *** In Vietnam, why do you think that the United States, despite its general support for popular sovereignty and
self-determination, financed _____ percent of the costs incurred by the ____________ in trying to reclaim their
Vietnamese colony after World War II?
c. The French were defeated at ____________________ in 1954. A conference was then held in ________________,
which agreed to split Vietnam into two countries temporarily at the ____ parallel, with unifying elections to be held in
two years. The United States then supported the corrupt but anticommunist regime of Ngo Dinh __________ in the
South. *** Despite its support for democracy, why do you think the United States didn’t want the agreed 1956
elections held in Vietnam?
d. Cold war tensions continued when the Soviets matched NATO with their own ____________ Pact in 1955 and
crushed a nationalist rebellion in ______________________ in 1956. In the Middle East, the American CIA brazenly
interfered in Iranian affairs by installing the pro-western ________ of Iran in 1953. However Eisenhower refused to
support the British and French during the __________ crisis of 1956. *** After reviewing this section on American
policy toward the Middle East, what do you think was (and to a large extent still is) the main objective of American
policy (anticommunism, nationalism, economic interests, etc.) in that region?
6. Ike’s Second Term (pp. 902–905)
a. Eisenhower was easily re-elected in 1956 against his Democratic rival Adlai _________________. In 1957, the
Soviets launched the world’s first satellite, called ________________, setting off competition to build more missiles.
The authors say that the United States was well advanced across a broad scientific front but that “the Soviets had gone
all out for rocketry.” *** What feature of communism do you think might allow an economically weaker country like
the Soviet Union to make rapid progress in a few narrow specialties?
b. With both sides building more and bigger bombs, Soviet leader Nikita _______________ created another crisis in
1958 by threatening to take over the Western sectors of ___________ (the old German capital). After a goodwill visit
to America in 1959, he and Eisenhower were to have met again in Paris in 1960—a meeting that was canceled after
America was caught spying over Russia with a ______ (type) spy plane.
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c. America today has extensive relations with communist countries such as China and Vietnam, but not with its close
neighbor Cuba. Protesting against the expropriation of American property after the 1959 Cuban revolution led by Dr.
Fidel ______________, the United States cut economic and diplomatic ties, forcing the Cubans to rely even more
heavily on their newfound friends in Moscow. *** Do you have any thoughts on whether this policy of isolating Cuba
was good when it was enacted and whether it is still appropriate today?
(1) Then:
(2) Now:
7. Transition in 1960 (pp. 905–907) In the election of 1960, young Senator John F. _____________ narrowly defeated
VP Richard M. ______________. This was the first election in which TV debates played a prominent role and the
first to be won by a _______________ (religious faith). The authors criticize Eisenhower for not using his great
popularity to further the cause of civil rights. However, they are generally positive on his leadership, pointing out the
great general prosperity of the 1950s and the fact that he kept the country out of a major conflict at the height of Cold
War tensions. Note though, that this peace was accompanied by a huge and unprecedented peacetime military
buildup. In the box on p. 908, Eisenhower, in his farewell address, warns the country to beware of the new “militaryindustrial complex.” *** What was this “complex” and why might Eisenhower have been worried about its growing
influence?
(1) “Military-industrial complex”:
(2) Growing influence:
8. Economic Trends (pp. 908–910) The authors here describe the construction boom in the suburbs; transformative
technology advances in transistors, computers, and air travel; and the transformation of the economy from a
manufacturing to a service base. Employment opportunities for women surged at a time when middle-class women
were influenced by a new “cult of domesticity”—an ideal challenged by Betty _______________ in her 1963 book
The Feminine _________________. *** How has the expected role of middle-class women changed between the
1950s and today?
(1) 1950s:
(2) Today:
9. The Consumer Culture (pp. 911–915)
a. The authors describe the 1950s as a generally prosperous period when people moved to the suburbs, raised their
baby-boomer children, and spent a lot on leisure time activities and mass-produced, standardized, and heavily
advertised products. List some of the examples cited in the book to show new developments in each of the following
areas.
Consumer credit:
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Mass communications:
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Eating out:
Popular music:
Recreation/sports:
Movie stars:
b. Read about the “Life of the Mind.” Which listed books or plays have you read or seen?
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CHAPTER 38 TERM SHEET
The Eisenhower Era
Pages 887–890
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Adlai E. Stevenson
Richard M. Nixon
“Checkers” speech (1952)
Korean armistice (1952)
Pages 890–891
Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy
Gen. George Marshall
Army-McCarthy hearings (1954)
Pages 891 –897
Jim Crow laws
Emmett Till (1955)
Gunnar Myrdal
Jackie Robinson
NAACP
Executive Order 8802 (1941)
Walter White
Thurgood Marshall
Rosa Parks (1955)
Montgomery bus boycott
Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Earl Warren
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
“Declaration of Constitutional Principals” (1956)
Orval Faubus
Little Rock Central High (1957)
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Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957)
Greensboro “sit-ins” (1960)
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (1960)
Pages 897–899
Bracero program
“Operation Wetback” (1954)
“Indian New Deal” (1934)
Interstate Highway Act (1956)
AF of L and CIO merger (1955)
Pages 899–902
John Foster Dulles
Strategic Air Command (SAC)
“Massive retaliation”
Nikita Khrushchev
Geneva summit (1955)
Hungarian uprising (1956)
Ho Chi Minh
Dienbienphu (1954)
Geneva Conference (1954)
Ngo Dinh Diem
Warsaw Pact (1955)
Shah of Iran (1953)
Suez crisis (1956)
Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)
OPEC (1960)
Pages 902–905
James R. Hoffa
Landrum-Griffin Act (1959)
Sputnik (1957)
Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
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“Missile gap”
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
National Defense and Education Act (1958)
Lebanon intervention (1958)
“Spirit of Camp David” (1959)
U-2 spy plane (1960)
Guatemalan intervention (1954)
Fulgencio Batista
Fidel Castro (1959)
Pages 905–907
Richard Nixon
“Kitchen debate”
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson
“New Frontier”
Nixon-Kennedy TV debates (1960)
Twenty-second Amendment (1951)
Admission of Alaska and Hawaii (1959)
Pages 908–910
Betty Friedan
Pages 911–915
Television
Billy Graham, Oral Roberts, Fulton Sheen
Elvis Presley
Marilyn Monroe
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Social critics:
David Riesman
William H. Whyte, Jr.
Sloan Wilson
John Kenneth Galbraith
Daniel Bell
C. Wright Mills
Novelists:
Ernest Hemingway
John Steinbeck
Norman Mailer
James Jones
Joseph Heller
Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.
John Updike
John Cheever
Louis Auchincloss
Gore Vidal
Poets:
Ezra Pound
Wallace Stevens
William Carlos Williams
Theodore Roethke
Robert Lowell
Sylvia Plath
Anne Sexton
John Berryman
Playwrights:
Tennessee Williams
Arthur Miller
Lorraine Hansberry
Edward Albee
Black/southern authors:
Richard Wright
Ralph Ellison
James Baldwin
LeRoi Jones
William Faulkner
Walker Percy
Eudora Welty
Robert Penn Warren
Flannery O’Connor
William Styron
Jewish writers:
J. D. Salinger
Bernard Malamud
Philip Roth
Saul Bellow
E. L. Doctorow
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39
CHAPTER
The Stormy Sixties, 1960–1968
Key questions in this chapter: How close did the world actually come to a nuclear catastrophe in incidents such as the Berlin and Cuban
missile crises? What lessons can be learned from the Vietnam War? Why and how were the passions of the civil rights movement
released and what is its legacy today? How have the cultural, sexual, and feminist revolutions of the 1960s affected life in America
today?
1. Kennedy and the “New Frontier” (pp. 916–918) Kennedy took office in early 1961 and appointed to the highest
offices the “best and the brightest” including his brother _________________ as Attorney General and Robert S.
_____________________ as Secretary of Defense. Much of his domestic “New ________________” program was
stalled in Congress, but Kennedy brought an inspiring and energetic new leadership style to the presidency. What did
Kennedy mean in his inaugural address (p. 916) when he declared that “the torch has been passed to a new generation
of Americans”?
2. Cold War and “Flexible Response” (pp. 918–921) Soviet Premier Nikita ____________________ tried to test the
young president at a summit conference in ______________ in June 1961. He threatened again to cut off access to
_______________ and, in August 1961, constructed a wall separating the two halves of that city. Kennedy pushed to
integrate Europe further under American leadership, a move resisted by Charles ___________________ of France.
Civil conflict involving communist elements in newly independent countries such as the _______________ (African
country) and _______________ (Asian country) convinced Kennedy that a new Cold War strategy was needed. He
didn’t like the “devil’s choice” inherent in the Eisenhower reliance on the doctrine of “massive retaliation,” i.e.,
keeping the peace by threatening “aggressors” with atomic weapons. What was this new strategy called “flexible
response”? *** While seemingly a more realistic strategy, what was the dangerous aspect of the concept of “flexible
response” that might have encouraged Kennedy to increase the U.S. presence in South Vietnam to a level of _____
thousand men before his death in November 1963 and to engineer a coup against its leader ___________ that same
month?
(1) “Flexible response”:
(2) Dangerous aspect:
3. Cuban Missile Crisis (pp. 921–923)
a. This is the closest the world has yet come to a global nuclear catastrophe. Kennedy had pushed Cuban leader Fidel
________________ into an even closer relationship with the Soviets by going ahead with an invasion of Cuba by
CIA-supported Cuban exiles initiated under Eisenhower. The April 1961 invasion at the Bay of _________ turned
into a fiasco, as did other American efforts to topple Castro. Soviet Premier Nikita _______________ responded by
sending nuclear missiles to Cuba. Kennedy eventually decided to impose a naval “_________________” of Cuba.
After a high-stakes game of “nuclear chicken,” the Soviets agreed to withdraw their missiles in return for an
American promise not to invade and a quiet agreement to dismantle U.S. missiles in Turkey. *** Besides the
blockade, what other options did Kennedy have? What other options did Khrushchev have in responding to the
blockade?
(1) Kennedy’s options:
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Student Reading Questions for Kennedy, The American Pageant, Twelfth Edition
(2) Khrushchev’s options:
b. What are the consequences (or “fallout”) of the Cuban missile crisis listed by the authors for both the Soviets and
the Americans?
(1) Soviet consequences:
(2) American consequences:
4. Kennedy and Civil Rights (pp. 923–926)
a. A grassroots movement beginning at the local level was now beginning to drag government leaders into action.
This section reviews the mounting civil rights tensions in the early 1960s, including the lunch counter ________ -ins
begun in 1960; the ________________ Rides designed to integrate interstate transport facilities forcibly in 1961; the
federal troops needed to protect the enrollment of James _________________ at the University of
_______________________ in 1962; the nationally televised suppression of King-led protests in _______________,
Alabama, in 1963; and the famous March on _______________ later in 1963. Why do the authors say that Kennedy
was initially reluctant to support civil rights? *** When did he change his mind and why do you think he did so?
(1) JFK’s original position:
(2) JFK’s changed position:
b. Look at the section on “Examining the Evidence” about differing newspaper interpretations of the March on
Washington. *** What factors do you think contribute to this type of “press bias”?
5. Kennedy to Johnson (pp. 926–929)
a. The innocence of the age was shattered on November 22, 19_____ when Kennedy was shot in ___________,
Texas, by ________ ____________ Oswald, who was himself mysteriously murdered (on national TV!) while in
police custody a few days later. An investigation headed by Chief Justice Earl ________________ concluded that
Oswald had acted alone, but controversy over this issue remains to this day. Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon Johnson,
was a New Deal–style legislative wheeler-dealer who vowed to finish off the Kennedy program. What were the
principal features, including an originally unintended one, of the major Civil Rights Act which he forced through in
1964?
b. Johnson’s liberal leanings were evident in his call for a “War on _____________” and his package of new
proposals called his “Great _____________” program. Johnson wanted to make history, as FDR had done, by using
the massive power and resources of the federal government to uplift the bottom third of American society.
Unfortunately, Vietnam got in the way of this plan. In the middle of his 1964 presidential campaign, in which he
defeated conservative Republican Barry __________________, Johnson took advantage of a dubious attack on a U.S.
destroyer off the coast of Vietnam to secure passage by Congress of the Gulf of ____________ Resolution. This
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resolution gave the president almost unlimited power to wage war in Vietnam. The Constitution (Appendix p. A37)
gives what branch of government the power to declare war?
6. The “Great Society” (pp. 929–930) With a strong economy and a willing Congress, Johnson was able to secure
passage of most of his massive “Great Society” legislative agenda. This included two new government departments
(HUD and the Department of _______________), plus federal agencies to support the arts and humanities; Medicare
and ____________________ for the poor; removal of immigration restrictions (vastly increasing immigration from
Latin America and ____________); and other programs aimed at the disadvantaged, such as Project ________ Start.
*** In general, do you feel that future taxpayers should be obligated by the government to pay for “entitlement”
programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and unemployment insurance?
7. The Civil Rights Movement Turns Nasty (pp. 931–934)
a. This section summarizes the high-water mark of the multiracial Civil Rights movement symbolized by passage of
the _________ Rights Act of 1964 and the __________ Rights Act of 1965. The 1965 Act outlawed many of the
ploys used by southern segregationists to deny blacks their voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. Black voter
registration and the number of black officeholders increased dramatically thereafter. Despite this slow but steady
progress, many more radical black leaders, such as the Black Muslim preacher ____________ X and Stokeley
________________, grew impatient, distrustful of liberal white allies, and convinced that blacks would be better off
by separating themselves from white mainstream society. The focus of the movement now shifted from the South to
the inner cities of the North, where riots broke out in the mid- and late 1960s from Watts in Los Angeles to New York
City. The end of the moderate phase of the movement was symbolized by the April 1968, assassination of King in
_______________, Tennessee. On p. 932, the authors say that 1965 marked the “end of an era” in the civil rights
movement. Compare and contrast the two eras by completing the chart below:
Pre-1965
Post-1965
(1) Geographic focus:
Rural South
__________________
(2) Main issues:
Civil rights
__________________
(3) Ultimate objective:
Integration
__________________
(4) Representative leaders:
M. L. King, Jr.
__________________
(5) Tactics used:
Nonviolent protest
__________________
(6) Representative slogan:
“We shall overcome”
__________________
b. *** What theories can you come up with as to why the nonviolent, multiracial phase of the Civil Rights movement
ended in 1965/1966—just after Congress had passed two monumental pieces of legislation advancing the cause of
equal rights for all?
8. Vietnam Quagmire (pp. 934–937) This section describes Johnson’s “gradual escalation” strategy in Vietnam
instituted in 1965 and designed to convince the Viet _______ (essentially fighting a civil war for control of their own
country) to give up. Against a mounting antiwar movement, LBJ had placed more than _____________ U.S. soldiers
in Vietnam by 1968. *** Why do you think that all of this American firepower couldn’t defeat a small army from a
third-world country?
9. Johnson to Nixon (pp. 937–941) The massive North Vietnamese and Viet Cong offensive launched during ________
(the Vietnamese New Year) in January 1968 proved to many that victory was impossible and convinced Johnson not
to run for re-election in 1968. But once Robert F. ________________ was murdered in Los Angeles in June 1968, the
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only antiwar candidate remaining in that contest was Sen. Eugene ______________. Prowar VP Hubert H.
_________ won the Democratic nomination at a riotous convention in ________________, but he was defeated in the
election by Republican anticommunist hard-liner Richard M. _____________. Though an increasing number of
Americans were against the war by 1968, those views were not represented by any of the candidates, including thirdparty candidate George C. _____________. The “Obituary” of Lyndon Johnson at the end of this section gives him
credit as a great domestic legislator who could have gone down in history alongside FDR but for his understandable
yet ultimately disastrous policies in Vietnam. *** After looking over this section, to what extent can you sympathize
with his dilemma and that of the country in responding to a potential communist takeover in Vietnam? Where do you
think government leaders went wrong?
10. “CounterCulture” of the 1960s (pp. 941–943)
a. In this section, the authors cite elements of the new youth-oriented counterculture that they say was “launched in
youthful idealism” but which “sputtered out in violence and cynicism.” This transformation was characterized by a
disillusionment with all kinds of authority, dropouts, draft-dodging, drugs, unconventional dress, peace signs, acid
rock, antimaterialism, gay rights, and a much more liberal attitude toward sex partially facilitated by the new birth
control pill. Explain what the authors mean when they say that these cultural upheavals can be “largely attributed to
three P’s.”
(1) Population bulge:
(2) Protest:
(3) Prosperity:
b. Many elements of the 1960s counterculture can seem quaint to us today. In fact, most “hippies” went “straight”
when they began having families of their own. *** However, what are the elements of this cultural revolution that you
think have been most permanent? Which ones have had the most impact on the values and cultural norms generally
accepted today?
11. Varying Viewpoints (pp. 944–945) The authors say that four issues dominate historical debate about the 1960s: civil
rights, the “War on Poverty,” Vietnam, and the “counterculture.” Pick ONE of these four and summarize the essence
of the historical debate.
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CHAPTER 39 TERM SHEET
The Stormy Sixties
Pages 916–918
John F. Kennedy
Robert F. Kennedy
J. Edgar Hoover
Robert S. McNamara
“New Frontier”
Peace Corps
“Man on the moon” (1969)
Pages 918–921
Nikita Khrushchev
Vienna Conference (1961)
Berlin wall (1961)
Trade Expansion Act (1962)
“Atlantic Community”
Charles de Gaulle
“Massive retaliation”
“Flexible response”
Green Berets
Anti-Diem coup (1963)
Pages 921–922
Alliance for Progress (1961)
Bay of Pigs (1961)
Cuban missile crisis (October 1962)
Peaceful coexistence/détente
Pages 923–926
Freedom Riders (1961)
James Meredith (1962)
Birmingham protests (1963)
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March on Washington (August 1963)
Medgar Evers
Pages 926–929
Lee Harvey Oswald (November 22, 1963)
Jack Ruby
Earl Warren
Lyndon B. Johnson
Civil Rights Act (1964)
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Title VII
“Affirmative action”
“War on Poverty”
“Great Society”
Michael Harrington (1962)
Barry Goldwater (1964)
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)
Pages 929–930
Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO)
DOT and HUD (1965)
Robert C. Weaver
National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities
Medicare
Medicaid
“Entitlement” programs
Immigration and Nationality Act (1965)
Project Head Start
Pages 931–934
Voting Rights Act (1965)
Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)
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Mississippi “freedom summer” (1964)
Selma march (1965)
Watts (1965)
Malcolm X
Elijah Muhammed
Black Panther Party
Stokeley Carmichael
“Black Power”
King assassination (1968)
Pages 934–937
Dominican intervention (1965)
“Operation Rolling Thunder” (1965)
Vietnam “escalation” (1965)
“Domino” theory
Six-Day War (1967)
“Teach-ins” (1965)
Sen. William Fulbright
“Credibility gap”
“Doves” and “hawks”
Pages 937–941
Tet offensive (1968)
Sen. Eugene McCarthy
Johnson’s “abdication” (1968)
Hubert H. Humphrey
R. F. Kennedy assassination (1968)
Chicago Democratic convention (1968)
Richard M. Nixon
Spiro T. Agnew
George C. Wallace
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Pages 941–943
“Beat” poets (1950s)
James Dean
Free speech movement
Mario Savio
“Counterculture”
“Sexual revolution”
Birth-control pill (1960)
Dr. Alfred Kinsey
Stonewall incident (1969)
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
“Weathermen”
“Flower children”
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40
CHAPTER
The Stalemated Seventies, 1968–1980
1. Stagnating Economy (pp. 946–948)
a. Look at the chart on p. 947, which shows that the median family income went from $10,000 in 1970 to $50,000 in
2000. *** Given this dollar increase, how can the authors say on p. 946 that the baby-boom generation faced the
prospect of lower living standards than their parents? How is this also explained in the graph?
b. A contributing cause of the decline of optimism in the 1970s was the end of the postwar boom and the onset of
economic stagnation accompanied by inflationary price increases. What do the authors mean by the following cited
causes of the economic downturn?
(1) End to “productivity” gains:
(2) Oil price rises:
(3) Vietnam/Great Society spending with no tax increase:
(4) Foreign economic competition:
2. Nixon and Vietnam (pp. 948–950)
a. To quiet the public uproar over Vietnam after taking office in early 19____, Nixon sought “to win the war by other
means” by instituting a policy called “_______________________,” designed to withdraw U.S. troops gradually and
turn the fighting over to the local South Vietnamese. *** If you had been a citizen at the time listening to Nixon’s
plan for the first time, what might have been your reaction?
b. Page 949 describes the structure of the fighting force as well as the day-to-day nature of fighting in Vietnam
(including the 1968 massacre of villagers at _____ ________). *** What aspects of fighting this war impressed you?
How do you think it was different from other wars?
c. In April of 1970, when most thought Nixon was pulling troops out, he announced that he was actually sending U.S.
troops into neighboring ___________________ (country) to “clean out” communist sanctuaries there. This caused a
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storm of protest, highlighted by the Ohio National Guard firing on a group of demonstrators at _________
__________ University; the repeal by the Senate of the 1964 Gulf of __________ Resolution; and the leaking in 1971
of the top secret _____________ Papers, which detailed many of the Vietnam follies under Kennedy and Johnson.
*** Theoretically at least, Nixon had the opportunity when he took office to reverse completely the unpopular
Vietnam policies of his predecessor. Why do you think he did not do so?
3. Russia and China (pp. 950–951) Historians generally give the anticommunist Nixon credit for establishing an
improved dialog with China and the USSR. This policy of Nixon and his foreign policy advisor Henry A.
__________________ was called __________________ (French word). Nixon made a historic journey of friendship
to Beijing in early 197____ and followed with a trip to Moscow a few months later. Resulting from this policy, two
agreements (known by the letters ______ and _________) were signed with the USSR and were designed to limit the
spread of the nuclear arms race. Nevertheless, loopholes were found and, by the end of the 1980s, the two sides had
more than _______ thousand nuclear warheads aimed at each other. *** What do the authors mean on p. 951 when
they summarize the objective of Nixon’s strategy as “checkmating and co-opting the two great communist powers”?
4. Nixon and Domestic Policy (pp. 951–955)
a. Nixon didn’t like the liberal Supreme Court he had inherited. It was headed by Chief Justice Earl
_______________. This court had moved aggressively to protect or establish individual rights in areas such as birth
control, criminal defendant’s rights, free press, school prayer, and reapportionment. In disagreeing with these liberal
interpretations and favoring a “strict construction” of the Constitution, Nixon was arguing very much in the same way
as ________________________ (Hamilton or Jefferson). Nixon appointed a new Chief Justice, Warren E.
___________________, who actually continued the trend of fairly liberal rulings, including the landmark 1974 case
of Roe v. ________, which legalized abortion. Pick TWO of the Warren Court cases described on p. 952 and
summarize their importance.
(1)
(2)
b. In many areas, Nixon actually expanded Great Society concepts and programs. How did his
_________________________ Plan of 1969 actually change and expand Johnson’s concept of “affirmative action.”
*** What do you think of the charge that this new concept actually constituted “reverse discrimination”?
(1) Expanded “affirmative action”:
(2) “Reverse discrimination”:
c. The environmental movement got off the ground in the early 1970s, activated by books like ____________
_____________ by Rachel Carson and the establishment in 1970 of the _________________ ___________________
______________ (EPA). In 1972, proclaiming that peace in Vietnam was “at hand,” Nixon easily defeated the
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Democratic antiwar candidate George _____________________. After the election, he ordered the most massive air
bombardment of the war on North Vietnam, eventually earning what he called “peace with ________________,” but
which the authors call “a thinly disguised retreat.”
5. Watergate (pp. 955–957) The series of scandals called Watergate revolved around Nixon’s paranoia about his
political “enemies” and his obsession with reelection in 1972. They began with a bungled burglary of the Democratic
Party headquarters in the ______________ apartment complex in Washington, but soon spread to include exposure of
a huge number of “dirty tricks” perpetrated by the White House “_____________ unit,” created to plug up “leaks” of
confidential information. A Senate committee headed by aging Senator Sam _______________ held televised
hearings on the matter that involved detailed accusations about Nixon’s direct involvement in the “cover-up” of
relevant material, especially from former White House lawyer John _________ III. *** Look at the cartoon on p. 957
and “Examining the Evidence” on p. 961. How do they sum up what led to Nixon’s ultimate downfall?
6. Nixon’s Downfall (pp. 957–960)
a. Nixon’s battered presidency was further tarnished with the revelations about fourteen months of secret bombings of
the neutral country of __________________. Congress attempted to re-assert its authority with the _________
Powers Act of 1973. In the Middle East, the United States supported _____________________ in the October War of
1973 and paid the price when Arab countries placed an ___________________ on oil shipments to the United States
Later, through agreement within the Organization of _________________ _______________ Countries (OPEC), oil
exporters were able to quadruple the price for their product. What do the authors mean on p. 958 when they call this
“the end of an era?”
b. When it became clear that the evidence against Nixon would eventually lead to his ____________________ by the
House and conviction by the Senate, Nixon became the only president ever to resign, on August 8, 197___. *** Any
final thoughts on Nixon and Watergate? Do you agree with the authors’ upbeat conclusion on p. 960 that the United
States had given the world “an impressive demonstration of self-discipline and self-government”?
7. Ford and Vietnam Endgame (pp. 960–965) Gerald R. ____________ was the country’s only non-elected president.
He had been appointed only the year before to replace the disgraced Vice President Spiro T. ____________, who had
himself resigned after being charged with corruption. In a controversial move, Ford began by giving a legal pardon to
his predecessor Richard ______________. He was also involved in signing the ________________ (city) accords,
which set international standards for governments to follow in their human rights policies. The North Vietnamese
finally overran the South in early 197___ and ended a conflict that had cost America $______ billion, ___________
dead, and ___________wounded. The authors conclude that Vietnam caused America to lose face, self-esteem,
military confidence, and much of its economic muscle. Looking at the section on “The Vietnamese,” how many came
to America after the war? Why did they come? How were they treated here?
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8. Feminism and Affirmative Action (pp. 963, 966–967, 968–969)
a. In the section on “The Feminists” (pp. 966–967), the authors link the “second wave” of feminists to the lessons
learned by activists in the civil rights movement. They date the “second wave” from the 1963 publication of The
_________________ Mystique by Betty _____________ and formation of the ______________
___________________ for Women (NOW). Feminist gains were made in 1972 with Title ______, which guaranteed
equal educational treatment and spurred a revolution in women’s athletics, and the 1973 Supreme Court case of
____________ v. ____________, which guaranteed abortion rights based on a woman’s “right to privacy.” But splits
between radicals and moderates caused failure of the ______________ _________________ Amendment in 1982.
Read the text of this proposed amendment on p. 966. *** What do you think was the BEST argument of opponents
such as Phyllis ______________ AGAINST passage of this amendment?
b. School busing to achieve integration and affirmative action in the workplace and college admissions were trimmed
back in the 1970s. Who was Allan Bakke and what was the Supreme Court’s ruling in his suit to be admitted to the
medical school at U.C. Davis?
(1) Bakke:
(2) Ruling:
9. Carter Administration, 1977–1981 (pp. 967, 970–975)
a. Ford lost the bicentennial 197___ election to Democrat Jimmy Carter, the ex-governor of _________________.
Carter seemed like a squeaky-clean outsider to people tired of “Washington politicians.” Carter’s biggest diplomatic
success was the 1978 Camp David agreement between Egyptian President Anwar __________ and Isreali Prime
Minister Menachem ______________ that helped to set the Middle East peace process in motion. He stressed human
rights issues and doing the “right thing” internationally, as reflected in his agreement to end U.S. control of the
_________________ Canal by the year 2000. Carter’s biggest problem was the ailing economy, caused at least in part
by high inflation rates, in turn caused in part by the increasing cost of imported oil. Look at the chart on p. 972. The
inflation rate (average annual percentage rate change in prices) was _____ percent in 1980. If you needed $50 to buy a
pair of shoes in 1970, you would need $_____ in 1980 and $_____ in 2000. What do the authors mean on p. 971
when they say that the “________ shocks” of the 1970s emphasized the nation’s new “economic interdependence”?
b. On the Cold War front, Carter tried to continue moves, together with the USSR, to reduce strategic nuclear
weapons with the _________ II Treaty—never ratified by the Senate. Relations with the USSR cooled significantly,
though, when the Soviets invaded _____________________ in December 1979. In retaliation, Carter decided to
boycott the Olympics scheduled for Moscow in 1980. (Of course, the Soviets then boycotted the Los Angeles
Olympics four years later!) Carter’s most embarrassing and lingering problem involved about 400 American hostages
taken by Muslim militants in _________ and not released until after Carter left office. The authors conclude that this
incident seemed to symbolize the country’s sense of “helplessness and even incompetence” that had set in with the
Vietnam war.
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CHAPTER 40 TERM SHEET
The Stalemated Seventies
Pages 946–948
Productivity
Inflation
Pages 948–951
“Vietnamization” (1969)
“Nixon Doctrine” (1969)
Vietnam moratorium (1969)
My Lai massacre (1968)
Cambodian invasion (1970)
Kent State/Jackson State (1970)
Tonkin Gulf Resolution repeal (1970)
Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971)
Daniel Ellsberg
Pentagon Papers (1971)
Pages 950–951
Henry Kissinger
China opening (1971)
Détente policy
Antiballistic missile (ABM) treaty (1972)
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) (1972)
Pages 951–955
Earl Warren
Liberal Warren Court decisions
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Miranda (1966)
Warren E. Berger (1969)
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
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Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
Philadelphia plan (1969)
“Reverse discrimination”
Environmental Protection Agency (1970)
Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)
Rachel Carson/Silent Spring (1962)
Clean Air and Endangered Species Acts (1970)
Nixon’s “southern strategy”
Sen. George McGovern (1972)
Vietnam pullout (1973)
Pages 955–957
CREEP
Watergate break-in (June 1972)
White House “plumbers unit”
Sen. Sam Ervin
John Dean III
Spiro Agnew
Gerald Ford
Archibald Cox
“Saturday night massacre” (1973)
Pages 957–960
Cambodian bombings (1973)
Pol Pot
War Powers Act (1973)
October War (1973)
Arab Oil Embargo (1974)
“Energy crisis”
Alaska pipeline
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
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Articles of impeachment
Nixon resignation (August 8, 1974)
Pages 960–965
Nixon pardon (1974)
Helsinki accords (1975)
Vietnam defeat (1975)
Pages 963, 966–967, 968–969
Title IX (1972)
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Phyllis Schlafly
Betty Freidan
National Organization for Women (NOW)
Milliken v. Bradley (1974)
“Reverse discrimination”
Bakke case (1978)
United States v. Wheeler (1978)
Pages 967, 970–975
Jimmy Carter (1976)
Department of Energy
“Human rights”
Camp David accords (1978)
Return of Panama Canal
Mohammed Reza Pahlevi
Brezhnev and SALT II negotiations (1979)
Iranian hostage crisis (1979–1980)
Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini
Afghanistan invasion and Olympic boycott (1980)
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