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Tree of Knowledge
In one way, the Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature
and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Augusta
Comte, who in the seventeenth century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the
existence of sociology. Despite its surface agreement with a standard conception, in actuality the
ToK System offers a set of novel ideas that have crucial implications for both ontology (i.e.,
reality) and epistemology (i.e., how we acquire knowledge about it). The novel ontological claim
made by the ToK, and depicted pictorially above, is that cosmic evolution consists of four
separable dimensions of complexity, namely Matter, Life, Mind and Culture. The dimension of
complexity argument is one of the most intriguing, original and complicated aspects of the
system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of levels such as
subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, cells, multi-celled organisms, consciousness, and society
is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there
are also dimensions of complexity. The difference is most clearly seen pictorially. A view of
nature as solely consisting of levels would have a single cone of complexity, whereas the ToK
depicts four cones. The ToK posits that a separate dimension of complexity emerges when a
process of selection operates on a unit of information. Thus, according to the ToK, natural
selection operating on genetic combinations gives rise to the dimension of Life; behavioral
selection operating on neuronal combinations gives rise to the dimension of Mind; and
justification operating on symbolic combinations gives rise to Culture.
Four Dimensions of Complexity
Matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with
modern cosmology, matter is theorized to have emerged out of a pure energy singularity at Big
Bang. Space and time were also born at such a point. Matter is frozen chunks of energy.
Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic
molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy) describe the
behavior of material objects.
Life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a
unique subset of material objects Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of
material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many
questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology,
the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the
unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic
complexity.
Mind in the ToK System refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors
of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal
environment relationship. As such, Mind is essentially synonymous with what behavioral
psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a
rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not
synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are
presumed to emerge in the mental dimension. Cognition, in the broad sense of the term (i.e., as
meaning neuro-information processing) is seen as covert mental behavior, whereas change
between the animal and the environment is defined as overt mental behavior. Defining mind as
mental behavior provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and
behavioral science.
Culture in the ToK System refers to human justification systems, which range from individual
justifications for particular actions to religions and political stances adopted by nation states. Just
as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information
processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with
the Cultural dimension.
Four Theoretical joint points
Quantum Gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science
which are quantum mechanics, the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general
relativity, the science of macroscopic (e.g., galaxies). Currently, these two great domains of
science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything. Yet
progress is being made, most notably through string theory, loop quantum gravity, black hole
thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these
two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view
of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of
quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in
relationship to the physical universe.
The Modern Synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in
the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the
emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological
knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual
reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint
point.
Behavioral Investment Theory (BIT) is proposed as a merger of the selection science of
behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience (notice the parallel with the
modern synthesis). BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible
computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal
as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value
system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and
ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the
current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two
vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny. A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement
and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science; (2) behavioral
science; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics/systems
theory.
The Justification Hypothesis (JH) is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of
the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial
claim of the JH is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental
behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere
ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates,
rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one’s claims, thoughts or
actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to
family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to
themselves and others.
The JH can be stated succinctly as follows: The evolution of language gave rise to the
problem of justification, and this evolutionary pressure ultimately resulted in the human selfconsciousness system and human culture. The JH carries with it three fundamental postulates.
The first is that the evolution of language must have created the problem of justification, which
is the problem of explaining one’s self to others in a justifiable manner. The second postulate is
that the human self-consciousness system can be understood as a “justification filter”. This
second claim links the evolutionary analysis with key insights from psychodynamic theory.
Specifically, psychodynamic theory posits that socially unjustifiable impulses are inhibited and
socially justifiable reasons are given for actions taken. The third postulate is that culture can be
understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human
populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in
biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems.